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About Google Book Search Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web at|http: //books .google .com/I H 1929.0/. 5- A f '7r:r. I TRANSFERRED HARVARD COLLEGE ANNALS OF POLITICS AND CULTUEE (1492—1899) CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE, C. F. CLAY, Manager. lonlron: FETTER LANE, E.G. «Iisgot9: 60, WELLINGTON STREET. l€tp}ig: P. A. BBOCKHAU8. ^tn ISorfc: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. ISmnbBB snli ffalnitla: MACMILLAN ft 00. Ltd. [All Rights reterved,] ANNALS OF POLITICS AND CULTUEE (1493-1899) BY G. P. GOOCH, MA. WITH AN INTRODUCTORY NOTE BY LORD ACTON. CAMBRIDGE : AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS 1905 A K jUNiVTRSlTY I OCT 31 19511 Firft Edition 1901, Reprinted 1906. v.. «r» ,».•.«. PREFACE. THE present work was undertaken at the suggestion of Lord Acton, in the belief that it might be useful, not only for students but for the general reader, to possess a concise summary of modem times, embracing the life of mankind in its entire range of thought and action* No presentation of history can be adequate which neglects the growth of the religious consciousness, of literature, of the moral and physical sciences, of art, of scholarship, of social life. Numerous handbooks deal with politics alone, and a few with what the Germans call '-Eultur-Oeschichte ' ; but no systematic attempt has hitherto been made either in English or in other languages to combine them. The plan of the book which, not less than the idea, represents a new departure, may be briefly explained. The left-hand page deals with Politics, the right-hand page with what I have termed, for the sake of brevity, Culture. The Politics and Culture of each year are, as nearly as possible, level, in order that the reader may see at a glance what was taking place in the chief departments of thought and action at any given moment. It will also be noticed that each paragraph is numbered. By this means the student is enabled to trace through the centuries the growth of a country, a literature, a science, or an art. If, for instance, we wish to discover the main outlines of the history of Poland, or Italian Literature, or Geology, or the Jesuits, we turn to the index and find under these names the paragraph numbers of the entries relating to them. In this way what may be called a system of double .1 i VI PREFACE. entry is obtained : in the first place, we find the context of an event, and, secondly, we are enabled to discover in what relation the special link that we are holding stands to the rest of the chain. It need scarcely be said that such a survey aims only at the inclusion of what are commonly regarded as the most notable events. Every handbook is written from some standpoint, its plan being governed by the desire to supply the needs of those by whom it will probably be used. In the present instance more space is devoted to England than to France ; to West than to East Europe ; to North America than to South America ; to India than to China ; to South Africa than to Morocco. A work covering such a large field would properly require a committee of specialists ; and the present writer would send out his book with far greater hesitation were it not for the ready response with which his requests for the revision of certain parts of the work have been met. To Lord Acton is due, as I have already said, both the idea and the form of the work ; and he has also found time to read the greater part of the proofs and to write an Introductory Note. To him belongs the greater part of whatever value the book may be held to possess. Mr Archbold, one of the sub-editora of the Dictionary of National Biography, and author of The Dissolution of the Somersetshire Monasteries, has kindly revised the greater number of the pages relating to the 16th century. The paragraphs dealing with Philology and Scholarship have been revised by Professor Sir Richard Jebb, M.P. ; Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese literature by Dr Garnett; Dutch, Danish, and Scandinavian literature by Mr Edmund Qosse ; Education by Mr J. B. Mullinger, author of the History of the University of Cambridge ; Physics and Astronomy by Mr Arthur Berry, Fellow of King's College, Cambridge, and author of A History of Astronomy ; Mathematics by Mr Rouse Ball, author of numerous works on the history of Mathematics, and by Mr Sedgwick, Senior Wrangler in 1894; the Biological Sciences by Mr W. M. Fletcher, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge; Chemistry by Mr J. E. Purvis, assistant to Professor Liveing in the University of Cambridge; Geology by Mr Thomas, assistant to Professor Sollas in PREFACE. vii the University of Oxford; the Painting of the IGth century by Mr Roger Fry, author of a Study of Oiovanni Bellini; Law by Mr Reddaway, Fellow of Eling's College, Cambridge, author of The Monroe Doctrine; Music by Mr H. W. Richards, Mus.Baa To all of these, and to other friends, I am indebted for valuable suggestions and corrections; but the responsibility for the errors, which are probably only too numerous, is mine alone. I shall be sincerely grateful to all those who are good enough to inform me of any mistakes or omissions which they may happen to detect. I have added a selected list of guides to the various subjects dealt with in the book. Numberless Bibliographies exist ; but some are useless for the general reader by their very completeness, some again are too elementary to be of value to any but beginners, while others are rendered worthless for advanced students by omitting works written in foreign languages. The present attempt includes only the most important and reliable guides in Euglish, French, German, Italian and Spanish. References to less familiar languages would, I believe, be of little use. The Bibliography has been rendered less imperfect by the kindness of Dr Ward, Master of Peterhouse, whose profound acquaintance with foreign scholarship requires no testimony. Mrs Marian Marshall has been good enough to assist in preparing the Index for the press. O. P. G. Januartf, 1901. In the present reprint a few mistakes have been corrected, but no complete revision of the book has been attempted. G. P. G. South Villa, Gajipden Hill Road, W. October, 1905. INTRODUCTORY NOTE. TXTHOEVER desires to understand modem times, the prize of ** all History, and to trace the causes that made the present world, knows the need of a plain guide to facts and books, as a deliverance from abridgments, and an aid to fuller information. The present volume has been written by a man of rare ability and attainment, surrounded and supported by auxiliary experts. Mr Qooch gives first of all the external course of public events which are the essential basis of History. But a man ignorant of the Advancement of Learning, the Principia, or the Analogy, would possess little of that which makes such studies interesting and valuable for the formation of the mind; and many of our most instructive historians, Whewell, Max Miiller, Lightfoot, Bash- dall, Leslie Stephen, are not concerned, directly, with politics. It would be an arbitrary and unscientific definition which should exclude them and the topics on which they write from their proper position; for History embraces ideas as much as events, and derives its best virtue from regions beyond the sphere of State. No previous writer has grasped this fundamental truth with deeper conviction and understanding than Mr Qooch. Viewing Modem History as a whole, he does justice to its several elements, to thought as well as action, to the mass of influences which constitute opinion and govern the life of nations and the progress of civilization. ACTON. JanvAxry, 190L ^- OHEONOLOGIOAL TABLES. O. POLITICS 1. En^and. Perkin Warbeck of Tournai, acclaimed Duke riAgo of York by Desmond and Kildare 1491, is invited to the Court ^ of France. Henry VII. undertakes an expedition to France (for which money is raised by Benevolences) to punisn Charles VIII. for his marriage with Anne of Brittany and the union of the last great independent fief with the French crown. On commencing the siege of Boulogne, however, he is bought off, and returns after signing the Peace of Etaples, by which Warbeck is expelled from France. 2. Spain. The 11 years' war caused by the refusal of tribute by the Moors ends with the capture of Granada, chiefly owing to the divisions among the Moorish chiefs. The termination of the struggle of 800 years is celebrated throughout Christendom. The Moors are allowed to retain their religion ; but large numbers cross to the African coast and take to piracy. 3. Italy. The political balance established by Lorenzo de Medici is ended W his death. Exasperated by the misrule of Ferdinand, King of Isaples, a number of nobles appeal to France to interpose. Koderick Borgia becomes Pope Alexander VI. 4. England. On leaving France, Warbeck goes to Flanders, [-1493 where Margaret, Duchess of Burgundy, receives him as her '- nephew. Henry breaks off commercial relations, thereby alienating English merchants, and the Yorkists regain hope from the King's unpopularity. 5. France. Charles makes peace with Spain by the Treaty of Barcelona, restoring Roussillon and Cerdagne, and, by the Treaty of Senlis, with Maximilian, the new Emperor. 6. Spain. Beine invited to confirm tne claim of Spain to Columbus* discoveries, the rope issues a Bull, granting to Spain everything not possessed by a Christian prince 100 leases west of the Azores, and the discoveries to the east of that line to Portugal. On the protest of the latter, the line is moved 270 leagues further west. CULTUEE 1. Spanish Ch. Three months after the fall of Granada, the t\am Jews, at the instance of Torauemada, are offered the alternatives '- of conversion or exile, and aoout 150,000 leave the country for different parts of Europe and the Ottoman Empire. 2. Spanish Lit. Lebriia, the father of Spanish Humanism and the tutor of Isabella, publishes his Arte de la Lingua Castellana and his Spanish-Latin Dictionary ; Encina writes his first Eclogues ; and Peter Martyr of Anghiera, an Italian pupil of Pomponius Laetus, receives a post at Court, whence he maintains a correspondence with the leaders of politics and letters for 30 years. S. Geography. After various attempts of the Portuguese to reach India by the West, Columbus, a native of Qenoa, influenced by his voyages with Prince Henry's captains, by his correspondence with Toscanelli of Florence and by his friendship with Martin Behaim, the Nuremberg cartocrapher, leaves Spain with three vessels, under the patronfu;e of Ferdinand and Isabella, to find a western route to India and Japan, and discovers the Bahamas, Cuba and Hayti (Oct.). Thinking he has reached India, he names the islands the West Ladies. 4. Eng. Lit. Wynkyn de Worde of Lorraine, an apprentice of n 493 Caxton and his successor at the printing-office at Westminster, '- enters on a course of rapid publication. In the next seven years, 100 works issue from his press, some merely reprints of Caxton. At the same moment appears the first work of Pynson, a Norman, the successor to the business of Machlinia and Lettou, a printer less prolific but more scholarly than Wynkyn de Worde. 1—2 POLITICS [1493 7. Italy. Lodovico Sforza, desiring to supplant his nephew in the duchy of Milan, and fearing intervention from Naples and Florence, invites Charles of France to assert his right to Naples. 8. America. Columbus returns to found the Spanish Empire, bringing 17 vessels and 1,500 persons. He explores the Lesser Antilles, Jamaica and the southern coast of Cuba; founds Isabella and San Domingo in Hayti, and remains Governor till 1500. 9. En^and. Poynings becomes Deputy for Ireland, and, on [1404 account of the reception of the Pretenders, announces that the ^ Irish Parliament may meet only when sanctioned by the King, that English laws are binding on Ireland, and that the Acts of the Irish Parliament must be revised by the King and Privy Council. By these Acts, known collectively as Poynings' Law, Ireland becomes for tne first time directly subject to England. 10. Italy. The death of Ferdinand of Naples, of an illegitimate branch of the house of Aragon (Jan.), determines Charles VIII. to advance his claims derived from the house of Anjou, despite the Pope's recognition of Alfonso II., the son of the late King. He crosses the Alps (Sep.), recognises Sforza as Duke of Milan, and advances on Florence, where the republican party, owing to the weakness of Piero de Medici and the influence of Savonarola, regains strength and expels its rulers. At this moment, Pisa throws off the Florentine voke. After an agreement by which the King receives a Iftrge sum of money and is recognised as the protector of the liberties of Florence, Charles marches towards Rome. The Pope, finding resistance impossible, dismisses the Neapolitan troops and opens the gates (Dec.). 11. Spain. Ferdinand and Isabella retain the vacant Mastership of the Military Order of Alcantara (as they had done in a similar case in 1487 and do again in 1499), thereby greatly contributing to the power, wealth and prestige of the crown. 12. En^and. Stanley is executed for complicity with Warbeck, r-t^K despite the aid he had rendered to Henry at BoswortL Warbeck L*'^**'^ shortly after is repulsed in a descent on Kent, is rebuffed in Ireland and passes on to Scotland, where James IV. recognises his claim. In face of this danger, Henry causes a statute to be enacted by which no subject obeying the de facto King can at any subsequent time be reached by a charge of Treason. Jud^^ are empowered to initiate proceedings, on the information of any individual, and to award punishment. The statute is used to exact fines, and Empson and Dudley are made judges in order to apply it 13. Geimany. The Estates at the Diet of Worms, taking advantage of Maximilian's necessities, attempt a reorganisation of the Empire by abolishing the right of private war, creating an Imperial Chamber, or 1496] CULTURE o. Eng. Cli. The Pope grants bulls for the suppression of 1-1404 two monasteries, in eacn of which there are only tnree monks. '- 6. Scotcli Ch. Thirty *Wycliffites' are arrested for extreme anti- hierarchical teachings, but released with a warning, the only persecu- tion between 1433 and 1528. 7. German Ch. Brandt's Narrenschiff (Ship of Fools), one of the earliest monuments of modem German prose, enjoys a European cir- culation (Latin trans. 1497), owing to its satire and didactic tone. The work is aiscussed in the sermons of Greiler of Kaisersberg, his fellow Alsatian, and contributes to the revival of popular preaching. 8. Italian Cli. Savonarola's influence in Florence, steadily growing since his Lent sermons in the Cathedral, 1491, and the death of Lorenzo, now reaches its highest point. Prior of San Marco since 1491, Vicar- General of the Dominicans of Tuscany since 1493, and, since the arrival of Charles VIIL, director of the policy of the city and founder of its new Constitution, Savonarola now carries out his schemes for moral reforuL His influence is maintained by his sermons, by his claim to receive direct communications from God (some of which he publishes in his Compendium Revelationum), by his attack on the Paganism of the Renaissance in his Triumphus Crucis, etc., and by his commentaries. 9. Fhiloaophy. With the expulsion of the Medici from Florence, the Platonic Academy is for a time broken up, and Averroistic Aristo- telianism again becomes dominant in Italy, through the activity of the Paduan school, Pomponazzi, Nifo and Achillini. The Neapolitan Academy, founded 1471, becomes the most influential of Renaissance circles, in part owing to the influence of Pontano: 10. Philology. An edition of Musaeus appears, the first work issued from the Venetian press of Aldus, who follows it with editions of Aristotle and Aristophanes, in which he receives aid from Marcus Musurus and other Cretans. 11. Education* Aberdeen University is founded. 12. Deaths. Pico, Politian. 15. Spanish Ch. Ximenes (chosen as her confessor by Isabella, ^495 1492, and Provincial of the Franciscans, 1494), becomes Arch- L bishop of Toledo and Chancellor of Castile, and obtains a unique position in Church and State. 14. Portuguese Ch. The Jews are expelled from Portugal by the King, in order to induce the Spanish sovereigns to give him their eldest daughter. 16. Philosophy. Reuchlin's de Verbo Mirifico introduces the work of his friend Pico into Germany. The ideas are expanded in his Ars Oabbalistica, and inspire Agrippa's Occult Philosopny, 1510. 6 POLITICS [1496 Court of Appeal at a fixed place, of which the President alone is to be chosen by the Emperor, and by the imposition of the Common Penny, collected by the Diet. ^ .^. . .1. t, • *i. 14 Italy. In return for tnflmg concessions, the rope receives the obedience of France, and Charles withdraws, taking with him Caesar Borgia, who escapes. Alfonso II. abdicates in favour of his son Ferdinand, who is, however, deserted, and flies, Charles entering Naples unopposed. Maximilian, Ferdinand, the Pope, Sforza, and Venice form a Holy League (March) for the expulsion of the French, Maximilian being alarmed at French preponderance in Europe, Ferdinand fearing for Sicily, Sforza disquieted b^ the claim to Milan of the Duke of Orleans, derived throuffh the Visconti. After three months in Naples, Charles' marches northward (May), defeats the Venetian troops at Fomovo (July), and leaves Italy (Nov.), the Duke of Orleans remaining behind. Ferdinand, who has already returned to Naples, brings the French occupation to an end with Spanish arms (Nov.). (Their last stronghold capitulates, Aug. 1496.) The Leaj^e is broken up by Sforza, who accepts French overtures for i)eace. The expedition, though in itsdf a failure, forms a turning-point in history, revealing the weak- ness of Italy, introducing into European politics the notion of the balance of power, and familiarising France with the ideas and products of the Renaissance. 15. En^and. Warbeck and James invade England ; but r^^g^ the expedition is little more than a raid. In view of the ^ insecurwy at home, Henry makes the Intorcursus Magnus with Philip of Burgundy, by which the latter throws over Warbeck, and the commercial pri^leges between England and Flanders are restored, violations and disagreements, however, shortly ensuing. 16. Spain. Philip, son of Maximilian, marries Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, who, by the death of her only brother (1498), becomes heiress of the Spanish empire. 17. Englland. Henry's demand for a subsidy to resist a Scotoh r^^^g^ invasion is resisted by the Comishmen, who march on London, ^ but are overpowered at Blackheath (June). Warbeck lands in Cornwall (Sep.), and is joined bv 6,000 men, whom he deserts at Taunton, on the approach of the King s troops. The army melts away and Warbeck ia captured. 18. Italy. On the departure of Charles from Italy, the Pope attacks the barons who had sided with him (above all the Orsini), calls the Spaniards under Gonsalvo de Cordova to his aid, and expels the French from Ostia. 1497] CULTURE 16. Italian Ut. Boiardo's Orlando Innamorato, the first Italiau romaDtic epic, the fame of which is soon dimmed by Ariosto's treatment of the theme and by Berni's ri/acimento of the poem itself, 1541. 17. Art. The equestrian statue of Bartolommeo GoUeoni, designed by Verrocchio, is completed (Venice). 18. Social. Columbus sends home for sale as slaves 500 prisoners, who are released and sent back by Isabella. 19, Eng. Cli. Colet retams from his studies in Italy and ri^gg France, and be^ns to lecture at Oxford on the Epistles of St ^ Paul, thereby aiding the moyement towards classical study initiated by Selling, Linacre, Grocjrn and Vitelli, and revolutionisinff the theologiciu curriculum by introducing the study of the books of the Greek Testa- ment in their historic setting. 20, Dutch Lit. The Chamber of Eglantine is founded in Amsterdam, the most famous of the Chambers of Rhetoric, i.e. dramatic and literary societies. 21, Art. Michelangelo comes to reside in Rome, executes the Pietk (St Peter's), and on the accession of Julius II. is commissioned to design his tomb, of which only the Moses (Rome) and two Slaves (Paris) are completed. Veit Stoss, the wood-carver, settles in Nuremberg, and, with Adam Kiafft and Peter Vischer, workers in stone and bronze, and Diirer, renders the city for a generation the centre of German art 22, Social. As a concession to the growing power of the nobility in Poland, the King allows the Diet to bind the peasantry to the soil 23. Geography. John Cabot, a Genoese resident in Bristol, \\am receives a patent fit)m Henry VII. to discover and occupy lands •- across the Atlantic, and, with two vessels, reaches the American coast, probably at Newfoundland or Labrador, for the first time (June). 24, Education. The convent of St Rhadegund in Cambridge, con- taining two nuns, is suppressed, and its funds devoted to the foundation of Jesus College. Celtes, after wandering in Italy and Germany, settles at Vienna and founds the Danube Literaiy Society for the spread of Classical culture, introduced by Peter Luder and Agricola. Humanisni is in the same year introduced at Tubingen by Rebel, and at Erfurt in the circle that Mntianus Rufus gathers round him, Hutten, Eoban Hess, Crotus Rubianus and Busch. 8 POLITICS [1498 19. Prance. Charles VIII., the last of the direct line of the h^qq Valois, is succeeded by his cousin, the Duke of Orleans, '- Louis XII., whose friendshii) is at once sought and won by Venice and the Pope. In August, Louis makes peace with Spain by the treaty of Marcoussis, which imally destroys the Holy League, and in which the partition of Naples is discussed. 20. England. Warbeck attempts to escape, but is captured and removed to the Tower, where Warwick, son of Clarence, is kept a prisoner. 21. En^and. Warbeck and Warwick plan a flight, and, on its [1409 discovery, are executed, Henry seizing the opportunity of ^ destroying the last of the Yorkist stock. 22. Italy. Louis enters Italy to enforce his claims on Milan, whence he expels Sforza (Oct.), who flies to Switzerland. Venice joins in the war, and extends her territory beyond the Adda. Stirred up by Sforza, the Sultan attacks Venice, who is defeated at Sapienza, and, after a three years' war, loses what remains of her Levantine empire. 23. Switzerland. The Swiss Confederation resist Maximilian's attempt to enforce old claims, and by tlie war with the Suabian League that follows, gain independence in all but name. The Confederation is now joined by Basle and Schaff'hausen, and (1513) AppenzeU, thus reaching the number of 13, at which it remains till Napoleon. 24. Asia. After a period of anarchy, Ismail wins the throne of Persia and founds the Sun dynasty (so called from the School to which his family has belonged for generations), which lasts till 1736. 25. Qerraany. The Diet at Ausburg proceeds with the re- ticaq organisation of the Empire by establishing a Council of Regency, ^ composed of representatives from the three Colleges of Electors, princes and towns. To facilitfvte administration, Germany is divided into six circles or provinces. 26. Italy. Sforza recaptures Milan, but is again expelled by the French and imprisoned in France. Taking advantage of the fall of Sforza, the Pope undertakes the conquest of the Romagna. Caesar Borgia captures Imola and Forli, and, after securing the goodwill of Venice, Rimini and Pesaro. Louis resolves to conquer Naples, but, on the opposition of Ferdinand, submits by the Treatv of Granada to a compromise, by which France is to have the kingship and the northern provinces and Spain the southern. 27. America. Cabral, a Portuguese, is carried by a storm to Brazil, which he declares an appanage for Portugal. Vespucci is sent out to erect a fort, and trade oegins, though the settlement is for a time neglected. 1600] CULTURE 9 25, French Ch. Louis XII. re-establishes the Pragmatic n^go Sanction of 1438, by which the election of Bishops was given to *- the Chapters. B6, ItaUan Ch. The Florentine magistrates, emboldened by his excommunication, 1497, and terrified by the threat of an Interdict on the city, forbid Savonarola to preach. The spell is broken by his refusal of a challenge to ordeal (April), and, next day, San Marco is attacked and its Prior imprisoned. Six weeks later Savonarola dies a victim to his opposition to the Pope s schemes, and to the reaction produced by his strictness. £7. Eng. Lit. Erasmus comes to reside at Oxford, attracted by the fame of its Greek school, and forms intimate friendships with Colet and with More, (now Uving in London,) their fellow-work introducing the ideas of the Renaissance and preparing the way for far-reaching religious changes. £8. German Lit. Reuchlin's Henno, in the style of Terence, creates the Latin drama in Germany. 29. Geography. Columbus starts on his third voyage, discovers Trinidad, and sails along the Southern mainland. Vasco da Gama sails round the Cape of Good Hope (discovered by Diaz 1486) and lands at Calicut, substituting Portuguese commercial supremacy for that of the Italian cities. SO. Edncation. Hogius dies, and the school at Deventer, founded by the Brethren of the Common Life, loses its influence, its traditions, however, being continued by the writings of Wimpheling and by the schools of Elsass. SI. Art. Bramante leaves Milan on the fall of Sforza, and [1400 settles at Rome, where he perfects the classic style in Lis '- palaces and in his additions to the Vatican. Leonardo finishes the ' Last Supper ' (Milan). SB, Geography. Pinion sails along the coast of Brazil (already surveyed by Vespucci, if the reputed voyage of 1497 was really under- taken),'-and takes possession m the name of Spain, though without making a settlement. SS. Deaths. Ficino, Torquemada. S4^ Bohemian Ch. The Pope sends inquisitors to cope with ricAQ the Bohemian Brothers, who deny the Real Presence and refuse ^ oaths, and who exercise commanding influence, in part owing to the preaching of Lucas of Prague. 55. Literature. The first edition of Erasmus' collection of Adages. 56. Philology. Aldus founds an Academy at Venice, for the study and publication of the Greek classics. By the efforts of its members, 1000 volumes a month are sometimes issued, mainly in the italic type, borrowed firom the handwriting of Musurus, and in small size. 57. Geography. Cortereal, a Portuguese, sails along the coast of Labrador and discovers the entrance to Hudson Strait 10 POLITICS [1601 28. England. Arthur, Prince of Wales, marries Catherine of n5Q]^ Aragon, after long ne^ociations, but dies 1502, when Catherine, ^ again after long negociations, is contracted to Prince Henry. 29. Spain. A revolt of the Moors is provoked by the efforts of Ximenes and Talavera to effect their conversion, but is suppressed, the Moors being offered the alternative of exile or baptism. 30. Italy. The Pope confirms the secret treaty of Louis and Ferdinand, and decrees the aeposition of the King of Naples. After a slight resistance fVederick withdraws, and the afiies enter Naples (Aug.). 31. Scotland. Margaret, eldest daughter of "Henry VII. of ngQ2 England, marries James IV. ... 32. Italy. France and Spain begin to quarrel over the division of Naples. Caesar Borgia seizes Urbino, breaks up a conspiracy of barons, reduces Sinigaglia and Perugia, and destroys the Orsini. 33. Italy. Gonsalvo de Cordova defeats the French, enters riRnft Naples (May), and, by a victory on the Garigliano and the con- •- sequent surrender of Gaeta, expels them from the countiy. Alexander VI. dies (Aug.), several of Caesar Borgia's conauests are reoccupied by their late possessors, and, shortly after the election of Julius II., Caesar himself is imprisoned for refusing to surrender the fortresses he still holds in the Romagna to the Pope. 34. Asia. To strengthen the settlements planted by Cabral and Va.sco da Gama (in a second voyage, 1502), three squadrons (one under Albuquerque), are sent out, and a fort is built at Cochin, the com- mander of which, Pacheco, defeats an army sent by the ruler of CJalicut. 35. France. Louis is induced by his wife to all^ with riRQ^ Maximilian and Philip in the Treaties of Blois, promising his ^ daughter to Charles, the son of Philip, with the reversion of Burgundy, Brittany, and Milan (the investiture of which he receives from the Emj)eror, 1505), and undertaking to join in seizing the mainland tern- tones of Venice and to attack the Pope. 36. Germany. Maximilian defeats the Count Palatine in the war of the Bavarian Succession, and annexes part of his territory. 37. Italy. Aragon annexes Naples, which is ruled by Gonsalvo de Cordova till 1507, and afterwards by a Viceroy. 1604] CULTURE 11 38, Churcli Hist. Erasmus' Enchiridion Militis Christiani mkai attacks the confusion of scholasticism and ceremonies with piety, ^ and reflects the general spirit of Colet s teaching. 39, Scotch Lit. Gawain Douglas' Palace of Honour, the principal poem of its author and the first purely allegorical romance producea in Scotland. ^. Eng. Lit. The Nut-Brown Maid first printed. r^^^ 41, Poitngaeae Ut. Gil Vicente's first drama (in Castilian), ^ influenced by the plavs of Encina. Ribeiro's Eclogues now appear and found the pastoral school Ji2. Education. Wittenberg University. 4S. Art, Michel Colombe, trained in the Burgundian school, makes the tomb of the Duke of Brittany. JH, Science. Leonardo da Vinci serves under Caesar Borgia as an Engineer, devoting himself not only to Mechanics, but to Optics, Chemistry, Astronomy and Geology. 45, Eng. Ch. The Lady Marearet, mother of Henry VII., ^503 endows Professors of Divinity at Doth Universities, on the advice ^ of Fisher, her confessor, who becomes the first occupant of the chair at Cambridge. 46, Scotch Lit. Dunbar celebrates the marriage of the King in his Thistle and the Rose. 47, Art. Leonardo commences the portrait of Mona Lisa (Paris). 4s. Social. Portugal transports African slaves to America. 49, Eng. Ch. Colet becomes Dean of St Paul's and exerts ^1504 a wide influence by his sermons. ^ 50, Italian Lit. Sannazzaro's pastoral romance, Arcadia, modelled on Boccaccio's Ameto, introduces into prose the reforms effected by Lorenzo and his circle in verse. 51, Art. Leonardo and Michelangelo design cartoons for the Hall of Council at Florence for the Battle of the Standard. Raphael leaves Perugia for Florence, where he works with Fra Bartolommeo, and developes a style indenendent of Peru^no. Giorgione's Madonna at Castelfranco, tiie first great wonc of the new style at Venice, as Bellini's altar-piece at S. Zacharia, 1505, may be regarded as the last great work of tne old. Michelangelo completes his David. Cranach is attached to the person of the Elector of Saxony and executes portraits, among them, later, those of the Reformers. 12 POLITICS [1601 38. Savoy. Charles III. becomes Duke of Savoy (1504-1553), and, while attempting to avoid participating in European wars, engages in frequent struggles with Geneva and Vaud. 39. France. Ferdinand, weakened by the death of Isabella 1-1505 and the claim of Philip to Castile, persuades Louis to throw over *■ the Treaty of Blois and to give him his niece, transferring with her the French claims on Naples. 40. Italy. The plan of partition being laid aside owing to changes in the relations of France and Spain, the Fope hastens to get what he can, and Venice restores all her conquests in the Romagna except Rimini and Faenza, the retention of which, however, the Pope refuses to guarantee. 41. Poland. By the Constitution called Nihil Novi the Diet agree to make unanimity essential for all changes ; the whole legislative power in consequence passes to the nobility, the Crown becoming, under Sigismund I. ana II. (1506-72^ steadily weaker. The rule- of the oligarchy and the wars with Turkey and Russia reduce Poland to impotence. 42. Russia. Ivan III. dies, after a reigii of forty-three years, having founded the Autocracy, expelled the Tartars of the Golden Horde, extended the frontier on the North and West, reduced the great semi- independent municipalities, established relations with the Western powers, and married a princess of the house of the PalaeologL 43. Asia. A force is sent out to Cochin under Almeida, who receives the title of Viceroy, to secure Portuguese commerce. 44. Africa. The East African Empire of Portugal is begun by the occupation of the coast from the Siambesi to Delagoa Bay, and the foundation of forts at Sofala and Mozambique (1507), but never extends far inland. 45. England. The Archduke Philip is wrecked on the English m 5A0 coast on his way to Spain, and is forced by Henry to surrender ^ the Earl of Suflolk, nephew of Edward IV. (who remains in prison till 1513, when he is executed), and to introduce changes in the Intercursus Magnus, a final settlement being reached 1507. 46. Spain. Philip and Joanna go to Spain to compel Ferdinand to surrender the regency of Castile. The nobles joining Philip, Ferdinand retires to Aragon; but Philip dies, Joanna becomes insane, and Ferdinand is invited to return. 47. Italy. Julius marches without warning against Perugia and Bologna, both of which surrender without a struggle. 48. Netherlands. The Regency is entrusted to the youthful Charles' aunt, Margaret of Austria. 1506] CULTURE 18 52, Social Henry places Gilds and Companies under the direct supervision of the State. The Gild system declines, its place being gradually taken by the * domestic system.' 5S. Death. Isabella. 54. Oerman Cli. Luther joins the August! nians at Erfurt riRnc (the strictest Order owing to the revival effected by Proles and ^ Staupitz, the Visitors), and, on the advice of the latter Visitor, studies Augustine. 55. Church HibL Erasmus commences his work as a biblical critic by editing Valla's Annotations on the New Testament 56. ItaJian Ut. Bembo's Asolani, or disquisitions on Love, become a model of style. 57. Education. The Lady Margaret founds Christ's College and Saint John's College at Cambridge (1509). 58. History. Wimpheling's Epitome Rerum Germanicarum, the first history of Germany from original sources, a stud}[ patronised by Maximilian, and cultivated by PeutinjB[er and Aventin at Augsburg, Pirkheimer at Nuremberg, and Stabius, Cuspinian and Celtes at Vienna. 59. Social Henry grants a more complete constitution to the Mer- chants' Adventurers (an offshoot from the Mercers' Co., c. 1400), assigns Calais as their head-quarters, and reduces the entrance fee. 60. Eng. Lit. Hawes' Pastime of Pleasure (printed 1517), an MRnft elaborate allegory in the style of Lydgate, &c. ■- 61. Art Julius IL lays the foundation-stone of a new Cathedral of St Peter, designed by Bramante in the form of a Greek cross, for which Baphael, Bramante's successor, substitutes a Latin cross. Diirer visits Italy, meeting Bellini, Raphael and others. The Laocoon is discovered. 6!B. Philology. Reuchlin's Hebrew Grammar and Dictionary, the earliest composed by a Christian, renders the study of Jewish literature less uncommon. 63. Education. Joachim of Brandenburg founds a University at Frankfort on the Oder, chieflv for the study of Roman law, which now finds its way into German codes. 64. Death. Columbus. 14 POLITICS [1607 49. Germany. The Imperial Chamber is re-established ; but n 5Q7 the Diet accepts the principle of taxation by separate states. '- Maximilian obtains men and mone^ for an expedition to receive the imperial crown and assert his rights m the Milanese. The scheme of Cardinal d'Amboise, to call a council and get himself substituted for Julius, turns Maximilian's thoughts towards becoming Pope himself. 50. Italy. The democratic party in Genoa, long under the suzerainty of France, revolts against the nobles and sets up a Doge. Louis enters Italy with a large army, retaJces the city and abolishes its privileges. 51. Germany. Maximilian assumes the title of Emperor Elect r][5Q3 at Trent, thereby asserting that the Gferman King, by his j- election, becomes Emperor without further confirmation. The title is henceforward recognised by the Popes. 52. Italy. Maximilian invades Venice, but is repeatedly beaten and forced to make a three years' truce, Venice retaining her conquests. Her success precipitates the formation of a league against her, sketched some months previously (Feb.), and finally signed at Cambrai (Dec) by D' Amboise for Louis and Margaret of Austria for her father Maximilian. The Emperor and the Pope are to regain the towns claimed by them, France to round off the Milanese, the King of Aragon to have the cities on the Neapolitan coast taken by Venice in the war (1495), Hungary to receive Dalmatia, Savoy Cyprus, the Duke of Ferrara and Marquis of Mantua to recover their losses. The Pope's nephew is adopted by the childless Guidobaldo of Urbino as his heir, the Duchy remaining in the Rovere family till 1626. 53. En^and. Henry VII. dies, and his son marries Catherine nKng of Aragon. [a w» 54. Italy. Though the real author of the League of Cambrai, the Pope only enters it when he finds France is in earnest (March), rejects the offer of Venice to restore Faenza and Rimini, the cities long claimed by him, and excommunicates her. The French now advance and win a battle at Agnadello, the allies seize what thev desire, and the Pope replies to her demand for peace with impossible terms. Venice soon regains Padua from Maximilian, who retires from Italy (Oct j ; but loses her fleet (Dec), and agrees to the Pope's terms, ceding Faenza, Rimini, and Ravenna. Pisa finally becomes subject to Florence. 55. Afiica. After four years of fighting in North Africa, the Spaniards, under Ximenes, take Oran, whence they push on to IVipoli (1510), and compel Algiers and Tunis to pay tribute. 56. Asia. Almeida defeats the fleet of the Mohammedan princes of North- West India. He is succeeded by Albuquerque, who transfers the capital to Goa, which he captures 1510, conquers Malacca 1511, and plants Portuguese rule in the Malay Peninsula and in the Spice Islands, 1609] CULTURE 15 65, Geography. Waldseemiiller, a professor of Geography in riKtm Lorraine, publishes a letter of Amerigo Vespucci, containing an ^ account of his travels, and proposes that the new Continent should be named after him. 66, Art Giorgione and Titian, fellow-pupils of Bellini, are commis- sioned to fresco the Pindaco dei Tedesci at Venice. 67, Death. Caesar Borgia. 68, Oerman Ch. Luther is appointed, by Staupitz' influence, ri rqq Professor of Theology at Wittenberg. L 69, Italian Lit. Bibbiena's Calandra founds Italian Comedy. 70, Spanish Lit. Amadis de Gaula, a Spanish version of the Portu- guese work of Lobeira, revives interest in the poems of Chivaby, in part throuffh the French translation of Herberay. 71, Eancation. Ximenes founds the university of Alcala, which becomes the centre of exegetical, as Salamanca is of dogmatic theology. 72, Art. Michelangelo b^ins to fresco the roof of the Sistine chapeL Raphael is invited by the Pope to reside in Rome, and is set to fresco the rooms and colonnades of the Vatican. Titian's Tribute Money (Dresden). 73. German Ch. Pfefferkom, an apostate Jew of Cologne, riKAft with the aid of Ortwin Gratius and Hoogstrat^n, obtains an order ^ from Maximilian to the Jews to surrender their books. The Arch- bishop of Mains urges consultation with Hebrew scholars, and Pfefferkorn suggests Reuchlin, who, however, declares boldly against persecution. Though condemned by Paris and other Universities, Reuchlin is acquitted hv the Bishop of Speyer, deputed by the Pope to try the case, and by a Commission at Rome, and wins the sympathies of the Humanists and the general public of Germany. 74. Eng. Lit. The Paston Letters end (1422--1509). 76, Art. Andrea del Sarto's frescoes in the cloister of the Annunziata, Florence. 16 POLITICS [1609 conciliating his native subjects by his just and tolerant administration. His attempt to seize Aden, the key to the trade of the Red Sea, fails 1513. 57. Italy. Venice receives absolution, and promises free naviga- n 51 n tion in the Gulf of Venice for the subjects of the Papal States. *■ The Council of Ten, however, secretly execute a protest against the validity of the pact as obtained by violence, and the war leaves a deep hostility to the Papacy. 58. France. The Pope, having obtained his own object by the war, sets himself to form a league against France, and declares war against Louis* ally, Ferrara. Louis replies by summoning to Tours a synod of French Bishops, who condemn the conduct of the Pope and recommend the assembling of a General Council to inquire into it. 59. Italy. The Pope fails to take Ferrara, and the French rt 511 shortly after capture Bologna. French and Spanish Cardinals ■- now summon a General Council to meet at Pisa, to which Julius retorts by convoking a Council at the Lateran. The Papacy, Ferdinand and Venice undertake the recovery of Bologna and the defence of the Church (Oct.), and a month later Henry VIII. enters European politics by joining the League. Meanwhile the Council meets at Pisa (Sep.), but is soon transferred to Milan, owing to the attitude of Florence, tne withdrawal into French territory proving a mere move in the game of politics. 60. America. Diego Velasquez conquers Cuba. 61. En^and. An expedition is sent to cooperate with Spain riKio against the south-west of France, but the troops mutiny and '- Ferdinand fails to support them. 62. Italy. The Spanish and Papal troops are out- manoeuvred by the French under Gaston de Foix, who wins a victory, but loses his own life near Ravenna (April). The Council at Milan decrees the suspension of the Pope, who replies in the first session of the Lateran Council (May), by declaring its adherents schismatics. The League is joined by Maximilian, and the French evacuate Milan and retire beyond the Alps, even Genoa shaking off their yoke. The Council withdraws to Lyons, and the Pope recovers Bologna. The victorious allies meet at the Con- gress of Mantua (Aug.), and agree to concede Parma and Piacenza to the Pope, to restore Milan to the son of Lodovico Sforza, and to win back Florence for the Medici. Maximilian now recognises the Council of Lateran. On the expulsion of the French, the Medici capture Florence with a Spanish army. The republican changes of 1494 are swept away, and the republican chiefs are banished. 63. Spain. Ferdinand seizes Navarre, south of the Pyrenees, from the House of D'Albret, which obtained the crown by a marriage with the Queen, Catherine de Foix, 1484. 1612] CULTURE 17 76. Italian Ut. Ariosto's Orlando Furioso. n^-i 77. Art Titian's Sacred and Profane Love (Villa Borghese, 1-^^^" Borne). 78. Social. Las Casas is ordained a priest and begins his lifelong crusade on behalf of the native races in the Spanish colonies, in which he receives support from Ximenes, Ferdinand, Vittoria and Soto, but is bitterly opposea by a large pjarty led by Sepulveda and Oviedo. 79. Edncatioii. Golet, having come into a large fortune on the death of his father, founds St Paul's School, and appoints Lily, who has learned Greek in Rhodes, headmaster. The statutes lay stress on classical study and on the formation of character, and concede to the Trustees the power of making unlimited changes. The school-books are composed by Golet, with the aid of Lily and Erasmus. 80. Death. Botticelli. 81. Eng. Ch. Some 'Lollards' are burned, and several persons mri]^ are forced by the Bishops to do penance. '■ 82. German Ch. Luther is sent to Rome on the business of his order, and is much influenced by his visit. Maximilian employs Wimpheling to draw up a programme of reform for the Council at risa. 83. French Lit. Gringoire's satirical farce, Le Prince des Sots, is followed by the decline of the mediaeval theatre. 8j^, Literature. Erasmus' Praise of Folly, composed while staying with More, satirising pilgrimages, indulgences, prayers to the Virgin, scholasticism, and attacking the attitude of Kings and Popes in regard to war, forms an important link in the chain of events which leads to the Reformation. 86. Education. Erasmus takes up his residence in Cambridge as Lady Margaret Professor and lecturer in Greek. 86. Death. Comines. 87. Eng. Ch. Convocation is summoned to deal with heresy, r^^^i^ and a contest takes place between Bishop Fitzjames, the leader ^ of the extreme party, and Colet, whose opening sermon severely censures the clergy. 88. French Ch. Lef^vre, already famous as a philosopher, publishes a commentary on, and translation of, St Paul's Epistles, affirming the exclusive authority of the Bible, and attacking Transubstantiation, clerical celibacy, Latin prayers, etc. 89. German Ch. On his return from Rome, Luther lectures on the Epistle to the Romans, and developes his theory of Justification. 90. Art. Raphael's fresco of Galatea (Villa Famesina, Rome). 91. Education. Brasenose, Oxford, is founded, the statutes of which Tirge the study of the old Scholastic curriculum. G. 18 POLITICS [1612 64. Germany. To the circles of 1500 are added four, each with a Governor. A short-lived Aulic Council is instituted under the control of the Emperor, to which part of the work of the Imperial Chamber is diverted 65. France. Henry plans a league for the partition of France, ri 51 o in which Maximilian and Ferdinand join at the Treaty of '- Mechlin (April). To break up the confederacy, Louis sends a force to recover the Milanese, which is routed by the Swiss mercenaries of Sforza (June). Henry now crosses to Calais, is joined by Maximilian and besieges Terouenne, the chief fortress on the Netherlands frontier. The relieving army flies without a blow at the Battle of Spurs, and Terouenne and Toumai surrender. Meanwhile the Swiss overrun Franche-Comt^, but are bribed to retire, and France issues unscathed from her campaigns. 66. Scotland. James IV. takes advanti^e of the absence of Henry to invade England, but is routed and slain at Flodden by the Earl of Surrey, the greater part of the Scotch nobility falling with hioL His heir, James v., is still a child. 67. En^and. An Arsenal is constructed at Deptford, and [1514 Trinity House is instituted to protect Endish shipping. ^ 68. Scotland. The country is split into factions, Margaret marr3dng Angus and desiring an English alliance, Archbishop Beaton demanding the regency of Albany, long resident in France. 69. Prance. Ferdinand, not desiring to weaken France too much, makes peace with Louis and persuades MaximiUan to do the same. Deserted by his allies, Henry resolves on a close alliance with France, and marries his sister to the King. 70. Hungary. The Diet enacts Verboczy's Decretum tripartitum Juris, which increases the privileges of the nobility and establishes the independence of the King in regard to Pope, Emperor and clergy. 71. Turkey. Selim I. defeats the Persians at Tauris and Aleppo. 72. En^and. Wolsey, who has risen into prominence bv his n 515 organisation of the campaigns of 1512-13 and already holds ^ the See of York, becomes Chancellor and Cardinal, and in 1517 Legate, and adds Durham and the Abbey of St Albans in commendam, and Bath, Worcester, and Hereford in farm. 73. Scotland. Albany, nephew of James III., reaches Scotland, assumes the Regency, and suppresses the Queen's faction, but by his partiality for France drives Margaret and the nobles into the arms of England. 1515] CULTURE 19 92. Eng. Ch. Benefit of clergy in cases of murder and robbery n rj^q is limited to the higher orders of the Church. This attack being ^ resented by the clergy, the Kin^ has the case argued in his presence, and Standish, a Franciscan, denies the validity of decretals in England unless legally ratified, and is supported by Henry. 93, Italian Ch. The Lateran Council condemns the assertion that the soul is mortal or one in all men, without, however, imposing penalties. 94. Scotch Lit. Gawain Douglas' translation of the Aeneid. 95, PoliticB. Macchiavelli, suspected of treason, leaves Florence and composes The Prince, which he dedicates to Lorenzo de Medici, in hope of employment Though not published till 1532, it circulates freely in MS., and in a plagiarism by Agostino Nifo. In 1516 Macchiavelli developes and qualifies its positions in lectures on the first decade of Livy. 96, Art. Holbein settles in Basle and begins his career as a painter, gradually passing from fresco and religious subjects to portraiture. 97. Geography. Vasco Nufiez de Balboa sets out n-om Antigua in search of the Pacific, of which he is told by an Indian chief, and which he sights from Darien. Ponce de Leon discovers Florida. 98, Education. The new Pope, Leo X., appoints Bembo and Sadoleto his secretaries. He restores and extends the Gymnasium, founded by Eugenius IV. and robbed by JuUus, and invites Lascaris to teach Greek, aided by his pupil Musurus, who establishes a Greek printing- press. A sculpture gallery is now formed at the Vatican, and Baphael prepares a scheme for the excavation and maintenance of the antiquities of me city. 99. Spaniah Ch. The Complutensian Polyglot, planned by ri5i4 Ximenes and executed by Zuniga, Nebrija, and by Greek and *■ Jewish converts. 100. Art. Gorreggio discovers and applies full chiaroscuro. 101, Social. Eck defends Usury, the Lateran Council at the same moment allowing the Montes Pietatis to charge moderate interest. 102. Philology. Budaeus' De Asse opens the French or second period of classical studies. 103, Death. Bramante. 104^ ItaUan Lit. Trissino's Sophonisba, the first blank verse [1515 in modem literature, is imitated by Rucellai, Alamanni, Aretino, ^ Cinthio, etc. 105. German Lit. Eulenspiegel, a coarse but humorous satire, perhaps by Murner, rivals the Narrenschiff in popularity. 106, Literature. In imitation of a volume published by Reuchlin, Mutianus Rufus and his friends compose Epistolae obscurorum Virorum (second series, 1517, by Hutten), supposed to be received by Ortwin Gratius, in which the ignorance of the Orders is ridiculea. The work, representing the open breach between the Humanists and 2—2 20 POLITICS [1516 74. France. Immediately on his accession, Francis sets out to con- quer the Milanese, and defeats the Swiss in the decisive battle of Mariffnano, shattering the military supremacy of the Swiss mercenaries, expeOing Sforza, and forcing the Pope to enter into an alliance and to restore the cities he had taken from the Milanese and from the Duchy of Ferrara. 75. Italy. Maximilian descends on Milan with Swiss troops, ri rio paid by England, but retreats without striking a blow, though '- the expedition prevents Francis from attacking Naples. Francis secures the alliance of Charles, the young King of Spam, and shortly after makes peace with Maximilian. 76. Switzerland. Francis makes peace with Switzerland, which undertakes to furnish mercenaries. 77. Hungaiy. Louis IL, King of Bohemia, becomes King of Hungary, and the faction fights of the ^eat and small nobility prepare the way for the Turkish invasion. Ferdinand, grandson of the ^Muperor, marries Louis' sister. 78. Montenegro. The Prince resigns and the Vladikas, or Prince Bishops, begin to rule. 79. Turkey. Selim invades and conquers Syria as a step to the conquest of Egypt. 80. Scotland. Albany returns and makes a treaty of mutual ri 517 defence, hinting at a marriage between the young King and a '- daughter of Francis. On the Regent's departure, faction fights break out between the Hamiltons and the Douglases. 81. Italy. Maximilian makes peace with Venice and restores Verona, thus terminating the wars that nad grown out of the League of Cambrai, from which Venice emerges with undiminished territory, though with her military power broken. 82. Turkey. Selim conquers Egypt, beheads the Mameluke Sultan, takes Mecca and Medinah, and revives the Caliphate, or headship of the Mahommedan world, which had been practically extinct since 1258. 83. Africa. Barbarossa, a Lesbian pirate, takes Algiers and defeats the Spanish fleet, but is slain by a new Spanish expedition, and succeeded by his brother, the more famous Barbarossa, the founder of the Barbary Corsairs, who becomes the vassal of the Sultan, by whom he is recognised as ruler of Algiers. 84. Asia. The Portuguese establish a factory at Colombo, and gradu- ally gain control of Ceylon. 1617] CULTURE 21 the old learning, enjoys immense popularity, but is disapproved by Erasmus. 107, Art. Henry VII/s cbapel is completed, and about the same time the last great examples of Perpendicular, such as Magdalen Tower, the churches of Bristol, Coventry, Boston, Windsor Chapel, the central tower at Canterbury, King's College Chapel, are finished. Torrigiano's work on Henry VIL's tomb introduces Renaissance influences in sculptura Raphael's 'Sistine' Madonna (Dresden). lOS, "LiKSFf. Zasius' Commentaries on Roman law. 109. Deaths. Albuquerque, Aldus. 110. French Ch. Francis and Leo arrange a Concordat, by \\f^\i^ which the annates are restored to the Pope, appointments of '- Bishops and Abbots are transferred to the King, tnough requiring papal approval, appeals to Rome are restricted, and excommunications, duUs, etc., must receive the sanction of the Crown. The Parliament and Uni- versity of Paris and the Chapters in vain protest. 111. German Ch. Luther meets with Tauler's sermons and a mystical work which he publishes with the title German Theology. 112. Chnrch Mist. Erasmus' Novum Instrumentum compiled from late MS. Erasmus' edition of Jerome. lis. Philosophy. Pomponazzi, an Aristotelian, contends that im- mortality cannot be proved by reason. m. Politics. More's Utopia (in Latin) attacks the social and political evils of England, and outlines an ideal Commonwealth, free firom wars of aggression, class legislation, ecclesiastical hierarchy, and persecution. 115. Education. Fox, Bishop of Winchester, founds Corpus College, Oxford, and endows lecturers on Greek, Latin and Divinity, the latter to discard the scholastics in favour of the original texts. 116. Geography. Peter Martyr's Decades describes the discoveries in the New World. 117. Death. Giovanni Bellini. 118. Eng. Ch. A Protestant party forms around Bilney, Barnes n 51^7 and Stafford at Cambridge. '- 119. Italian Ch. The Lateran Council is closed, the Pope declaring that schism has been destroyed and all necessary reforms accomplished. 120. German Ch. Tetzel, the agent of Albert, Archbishop of Mainz and Maffdeburg (to whom Leo had granted the power to sell mdulgences to pay the annates of his See), arrives at Juterbock, but is forbiddfen by the Elector of Saxony to enter his dominions. Luther nails 95 theses to the door of the Castle Church, describing Indulgences as a scholastic innovation. The theses are attacked by Tetzel himself, Hoogstraten, Prierias and Eck. 121. German Lit. The Theuerdank, in part composed by Maxi- milian, the last German Epic of Chivalry. 122. Spanish Lit. The plays of Torres Naharros, the father of Spanish Comedy. 22 POLITICS [1618 85. Bn^and. Wolsey negociates the Treaty of London, by rj^gj^g which France buys back Toumay, and the dauphin is betrothed •■ to the princess Mary. The league is joined by the Pope, the Emperor, and the King of Spain, thus realising for the moment Wolsey's dream of a univeraS peace. . More at kit yields to the King's entreaties and becomes a Pnvy Councillor. 86. Sweden. Christian II., of Denmark, invades Sweden to attack Sten Sture, the leader of the nobles, and carries away hostages, among them Gustayus Vasa, son of a senator. 87. Germany. Maximilian dies, and, after a protracted r^^cig struggle, in which Henry VIII. intervenes as a candidate, and j- in wmch the Pope favours Francis, Charles is supported by Frederick of Saxony, and is finally elected unanimously. At his coronation, Charles grants a Capitulation, undertaking to make no treaty nor declare war without the consent of the Estates, to put none to the ban without trial, to introduce no foreign troops, to reside principally in Germany, and to restore the Council of Regency. Ulric of Wurtemberg, put to the ban of the Empire for quarrels with his nobility, etc., is ejected by the Suabian League, his duchy being administered by the Emperor. 88. America. Cortez leaves Cuba for Mexico, destroys his fleet on disembarking, and enters the capital after overcoming great obstacles. He is expelled with much loss, 1520, but re-enters the city 1521. 89. Africa. The family of the Sherifs founds the Moorish empire of Morocco. 90. En^and. The struggle for the Empire causes strained tiraq relations between Francis and Charles, both of whom in conse- *■ quence desire the English alliance. On his way from Spain, Charles visits Henry (May), who at once crosses to Calais and meets Francis at the Field of the Cloth of Gold (June), returning to a second interview with the Emperor, with whom he makes a treaty (July). 91. Spain. Exasperated by Charles* Flemish counsellors, especially Chi^vres, by his neglect of Spanish customs, by his election as Emperor and his rapid departure, leaving another foreigner, Adrian of Utrecht, as regent in Castile, the Spaniards, led by Padilla and Bishop Acuna, revolt in Toledo and Castile. The rebels petition the Emperor for reforms, but are weakened by the defection of the nobility and crushed at Villalar, 1521. On the arrived of Charles, 1522, the towns, prosperous in their silk and cloth tr^e, are robbed of their liberties and oegin to decline. 92. Sweden. Christian again invades Sweden, defeats Sten Sture, is recognised King and grants an amnesty, but massacres many of the nobility, including Eric Vasa, in the Blood Bath of Stockholm. 1520] CULTURE 23 125, Education. The CoU^e des Trois Langues at Louvain. 124. Social. A Commission is appointed to report on Enclosures, now becoming frequent in England, despite the Acts of 1490 and 1516. Charles grants a monopoly of importing slaves into Spanish America. 126. Death. Ximenes. 126, German Ch. Luther dedicates an amplification of his nRj^g theses to the Pope, and meets Cajetan, the Papal Legate, at >- Ausburg (Oct.). Miltitz is sent as special envoy to the Elector of Saxony, carrying the Golden Rose for presentation if Frederick vields. Melanchthon, a relative and pupil of Reuchlin, becomes Professor of Greek at Wittenberg, connects the new movement with Humanism, and himself becomes a theologian. 127, Swedish Ch. Two Swedes return from Wittenbeig and intro- duce Protestantism, which spreads in the towns. 128, Chnrch Hist. Julius Exclusus, a satire on the Pope. 129, Etoience. Linacre founds the Royal College of Physicians. 150, Oerman Ch. Luther meets Miltitz (Jan^, and writes riRig respectfully to the Pope. In a disputation with Eck, at Leipsi^ ^ (June), he discovers his kinship with Huss, and is forced to criticise the Council of Constance, his new position winning him sympathy from Pirkheimer, Crotus Rubianus, Eoban Hess, Justus Jonas, Hutten, and Sickingen, from Oecolampadius, and from the Bohemian Brethren. His advances to Reuchlin are met with hostility, and to Erasmus with evasions. 151, Art. Titian's Assumption of the Virgin (Venice). 182, Education. Sinreet fights take place at Oxford, and the 'Trojans' are rebuked by the King and More. 188, Geography. Magellan, a Portuguese in the service of Spain, sails round Cape Horn and is killed on the Philippines, 1521, his ship, however, completing the circuit of the world, 1522. 184, Death. Leonardo da Vinci. 186. Sng. Ch. Wolsey bums Luther's works at Paul's Cross, ri raq where Pwher delivers a violent sermon. The Cambridge Pro- '■ testants in consequence meet secretly at the White Horse Inn, where they are joined by Coverdale and Latimer, the Inn being nicknamed Germany, and its frequenters Germans. 186. French Ch. Bri§onnet, Bishop of Meaux, a follower of Leftvre and friend of Farel and Roussel, attracts a semi-protestant circle round him, and gains the patronage of the King's sister, Margaret of Navarre. 187, German Ch. Luther's To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, pleads for a free Council, urges the princes and nobility to nationalise the Church, and combats ordinances not to be found in the N. T. His Babylonish Captivity rejects all the Sacraments of the 24 POLITICS [1520 Gustavus Vftsa, who has escaped from captivity, 1519, persuades Lubeck, the chief of the Hansa Towns, to aid in raising Sweden against Christian, gradually undermines Christian's authority, and is recognised as Regent by part of the nobility. 93. Turkey. Soliman the Magnificent begins his reign, the most glorious chapter of Ottoman history in the arts both of war and peace, in part owing to the Grand Vizier Ibrahim (executed 1536). 94. En^and. The Duke of Buckingham, son of the antagonist ri 501 of Richfl^d III., is executed on a charge of treason, his death ^ closing the list of the powerful nobles. 95. Scotland. Albany returns, and Angus is forced to retire. 96. Prance. Charles V. allies with the Pope to expel the French from Italy (May), and Wolsey, after failing to avert the war by a Con- ference at Calais (Aug.), joms the Emperor (Nov.). Meanwhile the French are expelled from Milan, where Sforza is restored, and France itself is invaded. Parma and Piacenza are annexed to the Papacy. 97. Germany. The Diet of Worms reconstitutes the Imperial Chamber and revives the Council of Regency, which lasts for three years. The Emperor resigns his hereditary dominions in Germany, except the Netherlands, to his brother Ferdinand. 98. Portugal. With the accession of John III. (1521-1557), the decline of Portugal commences, N. Africa being abandoned, except Ceuta, and African slaves being imported to till the soil. 99. Switzerland. Zwingli obtains the abolition of the Beislaufen, or mercenaries, in Zurich. 100. Turkey. With the excuse of avenging an insult to the Turkish envoy, Soliman captures Belgrade, and frightens Venice into paying tribute for Zante and Cyprus. 101. America. Ponce de Leon returns to Florida and founds a settle- ment which ends in disaster, owing to the climate and the hostility of the natives. 102. Scotland. Albany retires, but French influence remains ^^522 supreme. '• 103. Prance. England declares war against France, but the invasion leads to no result save that Francis allies with Scotland. 104. Germany. The Knights, or lesser German nobility, under Hutten and Sickingen, attack the Elector of Trier, but obtain little support, owing to Luther's disapproval of violent measures. 105. Turkey. After a heroic defence of five months, the Knights of St John in Rhodes, a number of them English, are forced to surrender, but receive Malta from the Emperor, 1530. The victory leaves the Turks supreme in the Eastern Mediterranean. 106. Asia. The Portuguese settle at Macao (near Hong-Kong). 1622] CULTUBE 25 Church except Baptism and the Lord's Supper, and demands the cup for the laity. His Freedom of a Christian Man maintains the priest- hood of every believer. Eck now circulates the Pope's Bull of Excom- munication (brought by Miltitz, 1618), which Lutiier publicly bums. A new war of pamphlets is waged by liuther and Hutten on one side, and by Mumer and Emser on the other. 1S8. Italian Ch. Sadoleto, Contarini, Giberto, CaraflFa, Gaetano da Thiene, the poet Flaminio, Camesecchi, etc., some of them accepting the Lutheran theory of Justification, begin to meet, and, in 1523, give the Society the name of the Oratory of Divine Love. 139. Art. Correggio begins his 10 years' labour on the frescoes of the domes of San Giovanni and the Cathedral at Parma. 1j^, Death. BaphaeL 141. Eng. Ch. Heniy replies to Luther's Babylonish Captivity ^521 in his Seven Sacraments, for which he receives the title of ^ Defender of the FaitL Luther retorts, attributing the work to Lee, and is attacked by More and Fisher. IJj^. French Ch. The Sorbonne condemns the Colloquies of Erasmus, and 100 propositions from Luther's writings. 14s. German Ch. Aleander, the Papal legate at the Diet of Worms, fails to induce the Emperor to enforce tne bull without hearing Luther (Ap.), who refuses to retract anything but what is proved unscrijptural. Charles allows him' to return, but puts him to the ban of the Empire (May). Luther hides in the Wartburg, where he translates the Bible. At Wittenberg his work is carried on by Melanchthon and Carlstadt, and by the newcomers, Bugenhagen and Justus Jonas. Melanchthon lays the foundations of Lutneran theology in his Loci Communes. 144, Spanish Ch. A number of Spanish Bishoi)s visit Worms to com- plain of the entry of Lutheran doctnnes into Spain. 1j^. Scotch Lit. Major, Principal of Glasgow, and, later, of St Andrew's (where Knox and Buchanan are among his pupils), writes his History of Scotland. 146, Social. The manufacture of silk is introduced into France. 147, French Ch. Leffevre's (Commentary on the Gospels. [1522 148, German Ch. Mystical Anabaptism appears in Zwickau, whence it is expelled by the magistrates, Miinzer roaming over (xermany, Storch, Stiibner and Cellarius visiting Wittenberg. Melanch- thon being too undecided to preserve order, Luther returns to Wittenberg (March), and persuades the Anabaptists to leave the city. He now publishes his translation of the N. T., the first rendering from the original into German prose, of which it is the first important monument. Mumer, the Franciscan, attacks the extravagances of the Reforma- tion in his Great Lutheran FooL 1^, Swiss Ch. Zwingli, pastor at Zurich, attacks fasting, clerical ceh'bacy, etc., and urges the substitution of the Bible for the Church. His example is followed by his old teacher Wyttenbach, and by Pelli- canus and Oecolampadius at Basle. 26 POLITICS [1623 107. En^and. Requiring money for the French wax, Henry ^1523 summons a Parliament (the only one 1516-28), which, however, *• refuses Wolsey's enormous demand of £800,000. 108. Scotland. Henry's offer of alliance is rejected, and Surrey ravages the Border. 109. France. Owing to the loss of his position as Constable and the Queen dowser's lawsuit to obtain his estates, Bourbon, the most powerful of ^nch nobles, joins the league of Charles, Henry, and most of the Italian powers. The invasion, despite the attack of Hcardy by England, of Ouienne by Spain and of Champagne by the Emperor, results in failure. 110. Germany. The Knights' War is terminated by the capture of Sickingen's castle and the death of its owner, quickly followed by that of Hutten. 111. Spcdn. Charles refuses to receive petitions for redress before the grant of supplies, thus reducing the Castnian Cortes to impotence. 112. Denmark. Christian H. is expelled by his subjects, aided by Lubeck, his uncle Frederick of Schleswig Holstein succeeding to the throne. 113. Sweden. On the flight of Christian from Denmark, the garrison in Stockholm surrenders, the long war of sieges comes to an end, and Gustavus Vasa becomes King of Sweden, the throne being declared hereditary in his family, 1544. Gustavus founds Swedish conunerce by abolishing the Hanseatic monopoly, re-organises the finances, developes the internal resources of the country and creates a standing army. 114. Scotland. Albany, who had returned, 1523, finally re- rmo^ tires, and an English party begins to form. Beaton is im- y^^ prisoned, the Queen is joined by Arran, and the young king is proclaimed. 115. Prance. The French invade Italy, but are repulsed and lose the Chevalier Bayard. Bourbon advances from Lombardy to the siege of Marseilles, but is forced to return, Francis following him, capturing Milan, laying siege to Pavia, and drawing the Pope to nis side. 116. Sv^eden. By the Treaty of Malmo the independence of Sweden (except the southern provinces), is recognised by the King of Denmark, the Union of Calmar, 1397, thus coming to an end. 117. France. The French troops, weakened by the despatch of 1^525 a large force against Naples, are routed near ravia by Pescara, '- Launoy and Bourbon (Feo.), Francis being carried captive to Spain and forced to resign Milan and Genoa. The bjEtttle terminates the first war, 1522-6, and marks the supremacy of the Spanish infantry, who for the first time use muskets. 118. England. On the news of Pavia, Wolsey desires to restore the balance of power by allying with France. Henry, however, determines to invade France, and Wolsey is compelled to ask for an Amicable Loan, which meets such wide-spread resistance that the invasion is given up and a treaty negociated. 1626] CULTURE 27 150. Bohemian Ch. The Bohemian Catechism, probably by Lucas of Prague, who is strongly influenced by a visit to the Waldensians. 151. Ung. Lit. Skelton attacks Wolsey in Why come ye not to Court? 152. Italian Lit. Sannazzaro's De Partu Virginis, a model of Latin style and a blend of Christian and classical ideas. 153. Death. BeuchUn. 164. German Ch. Carlstadt and Mlinzer become more and [1523 more Anabaptist, and retire to small parishes, whence they ^ foment the Kevolution by word and pen. 155. Spanish Ch. Juan d' Avila, 'the Apostle of Andalusia,' is persecuted as a Lutheran. 156. Netherlands Ch. Flemish Protestantism, which has centred in Augustinian monasteries, now begins the translation of Luther's writings and the composition of original works, and loses its first martyrs. 157. Swiss Ch. Zwingli draws up 67 articles and holds two public disputations, after which the clergy marry, the monasteries are dissolved, 1524, Mass is discontinued, and a theological college is instituted. 158. Eng. Lit. Lord Bemers' translation of Froissart. 159. Art. Titian's Bacchus and Ariadne (London) first renders move- ment. 160. Social. Fitzherbert's Husbandly, the first agricultural handbook since that of Walter of Henley (c. 1250). 161. Qerman Ch. Many Humanists who had joined the 1-1504 Protestants in their attack on the clergy, without sharing their '■ religious ideas, sever their connection with Luther, the signal being given by Erasmus' book on Free Will, to which Luther replies, 1525. Luuier and Walther collect and compose the first German hymn- book. 162. Italian Ch. Gaetano da Thiene, with the aid of Carafia, founds the Theatine Order to educate the secular priesthood, to preach and to visit. 163. French Lit. Gryphius begins to print at Lyons, with the aid of Dolet 164. Scotch Ch. Parliament forbids the import of Luther's n525 books ; but propagandism is at this moment begun by Patrick ^ Hamilton. 165. French Ch. Owing to the increasing antagonism aroused by the works of Lef^vre and his followers, the Dowager Louise, left supreme by the captivity of the King, and influenced by Cardinal Duprat, breaks up 28 POLITICS [1625 119. Germany. The revolt of the peasants, the greatest of a large number in the last half century, due to poverty, to feudal oppression, and to the teachings of Miinzer, Carlstadt and their followers, and in a less degree to the principles of the Reformation, spreads from south to central Germany. Their grievances are formulated in the Twelve Articles, supported from Scnpture, in which they claim the right of each parish to choose its minister, the right to hunt and fish, the reduction of tithes, the abolition of clerical jurisdiction, etc. They destroy castles and convents, are denounced by Luther, and defeated in a series of battles. Miinzer is captured and executed, and the revolt pitilessly stamped out (May). The Catholic Electors form the League of Dessau. Albert of Brandenburg, Grand Master since 1511 of the Teutonic Knights, accepts the Reformation, surrenders the lands of his Order to the King of Poland, from whom he receives them back as a fief, takes the title of Duke of Prussia, and establishes Protestantism. 120. Prance. By the Treaty of Madrid (Jan.), Francis is re- r^ggg leased on promising to yield the Duchy of Burgundy and his ^ claims in Italy, Flanders, and Artois, and leaving two sons as hostages. Once free, however, the King, with the Pope's approval, repudiates the compact, and joins with England, the Pope, Venice, and Milan in the League of Cognac (May), to compel the Emperor to restore the royal hostages and make Sforza independent in Milan. The second war of Francis and Charles commences with the capture of Milan by Bourbon (July), the arrival of German reinforcements under Frondsberg, and his advance on Rome. 121. Qennany. To be ready for resistance to the victorious Emperor, Philip of Hesse joins with John, Elector of Saxony, the princes of Brunswick-Liineburg, Anhalt, Mecklenburg and the city of Magdeburg, in the League of Torgau (March). In face of this confederacy, and of the alliance of the Pope with Francis, the Diet at Spire (June) practi- cally drops the Edict of Worms by leaving its execution to the conscience of individual rulers, until a General Council. 122. Hungary. King Louis and 20,000 are slain at Mohacz (Aug.)by the Turks, who occupy Buda. Ferdinand, brother-in-law of the late King, and Zapolya, a prominent noble and the candidate of the Porte, are chosen King by rival factions. Bohemia passes to Ferdinand, who declares it a hereditary possession, 1547. 123. Russia. After 20 years' war, peace is made with Poland, by the mediation of the Western powers, Russia retaining Smolensk, her chief conquest. The remnants of the Tartar hordes are now expelled. 124. Turkey. The fleets of the Sultan destroy the Aralb Corsairs of the Red Sea, and extend his authority over Arabia, his influence being felt in India, whence embassies are sent. 125. Asia. Baber, a descendant of Tamerlane (after seizing, 1504, and ruling the kingdom of Cabul), enters India, defeats the Mohammedan King of Delhi at Panipat, and a Hindu confederacy, 1527, and founds 1626] CULTURE 29 the circle at Meaux (where Bri90DDet suhmits), and burns a number of Protestant-s, the leaders, however, being saved by Margaret With the return of the King, the persecution is arrested. 166, German Cn. Luther marries Catherine Bora, once a nun, to the vexation of most of the Reformers. The purely commemorative view of Holy Communion now explained in Zwingli's True and False Beliffion is accepted by Oecolampadius, and in part by Bucer and Capito, and begins to spread over South Germany. 167, Education. Wolsey creates Cardinal College, Oxford, on the site of St Frideswide's Monastery, with its endowments, and those of other monastic houses, summons several of its first teachers from Cambridge, and founds a Grammar School at Ipswich, specially for classical studies, to feed his college. On his fall, Ipswich is confiscated and Cardinal College re-christened and re-endowed as Christ Church, 1546. 168. Eng. Ch. Aftergreat difficulties, Tyndale's translation of ri 526 the N. T. appears at Worms, and quickly circulates in England, ^ but is burnt at Paul's Cross and charged with wilful mistranslations by Tunstall, Lee, and More. The work gives a new stimulus to English Protestantism, of which Latimer now becomes leader. 169. German Ch. Luther composes a German service, and organises the systematic visitation of parishes. 170. Polish Ch. Despite the efforts of the Ein^ and the Church, IVotestantism gains a nold through books, through the education of vouths at Wittenbei^, and through commerce with German towns, and loses its earliest martyrs. 171. Philosophy. Vittoria becomes Professor of Theology at Sala- manca, and substitutes the study of Aquinas for that of Peter the Lombard. The studj of Thomism revives, and is spread by the alumni of Salamanca, Melchior Cano, De Soto, and Carranza. 172. Spanish Lit. Acting on a suggestion of the Venetian ambas- sador, Boscan begins to imitate Italian forms and initiates a literary revolution. 175. Portuguese Lit. About the same time Sa de Miranda returns from Italy and founds the classic school in Portugal. 174. Art. Holbein pays a visit to England, bringing a letter from Erasmus to More by whom he is introduced at Court. Except for visits to Basle, he remains in England as Court painter till his death. 176, Social. While resident at the court of Henry VI II., Vives com- poses his De Subventione Pauperum, the principles of which are widely applied, are approved by the Sorbonne, 1531, despite the opposition of the Mendicant Orders, and initiates the modem treatment of poverty. 30 POLITICS [1626 the Moghul Empire, leaving at his death, 1530, the whole of the Punjab to his son, Hamayun. 126. En^and. Henry's secret negociations with Clement con- [^527 ceming a divorce (first clearly referred to 1525), miscarrying '- owing to the Pope's captivity and their discovery by the Queen, the King tells his wife that his conscience compels their separation, and imposes silence on her. Wolsey informs More and Fisner that the 'King's scruples have been raised by the Bishop of Tarbes in negociating for the hand of his daughter, and forbids them to see the Queen. 127. ItfiJy. The German troops mutiny for pay, and are led by Bourbon to Bome, which is given over to the most terrible pillage it has ever experienced (May). The Pope, who has taken refuge in the Castle of St Angelo, is compelled to come to terms with the Emperor, and the Papal States are dismembered by the princes and cities of North Italy. On the news of the sack, a French army enters Italy, captures Genoa and marches on Naples, whither the Emperor's army is transported from Rome. Naples is saved by a pestilence and by the entry of Doria (who has been olockading the city on behalf of France) into the service of Charles, on account of an insult by Francis to Genoa, his native town. The Medici are expelled a second time from Florence. 128. Sweden. Needing money, Gustavus, by threats of resignation, induces the Diet of Westeras to give him the disposal of Church property, and to institute religious liberty. 129. America. Pizarro, after numerous rebuflFs, resolves, with a handful of followers, to go forward, and finds traces of a great civilisa- tion. He therefore procures patents from Spain, and starts from Panama, 1531, conquers Peru without difficulty, enters Cuzco, 1534, and founds Lima, the capital of Spanish Peru. 130. England. Gardiner and Fox are sent to Rome to urge the ri 500 Pope to appoint a decretal Commission. Clement, not danng to ^ insult the Emperor, the nephew of Catherine, refuses, and sends Campeggio to join Wolsey, with a verbal promise to confirm their arrangements. It is now found that Julius had given a Brief, preserved in Spain, even more definite than the dispensation. Henry vainly urges the Pope to declare this a forgery. During this delay, Wolsey consults the Bishops, who declare the case doubtful, and urge him to consult the Universities. 131. Scotlaaid. The King escapes from Angus, becomes master of his kingdom, and makes peace with Henry. 132. Germany. Philip of Hesse, suspecting a conspiracy among the Catholic princes, pays Pack, an official of the Duke of Saxony, to produce documents proving its existence. On the strength of Pack's revelations, Philip prepares for war, but desists on finding that the documents are forged. 1628] CULTURE 31 176. Scotch Ch. Hamilton writes his Commonplaces, and r^527 lectures at St Andrews, where he converts Alesius. He is ^ arrested and burnt, 1528. 177. French Ch. Margaret of Angoul^me marries Henry of Navarre, gathers round her at N6rac Marot, jDesperiers, etc., and holds Lutheran services in the Castle. 178. Oerman Ch. Philip of Hesse founds a University at Marburg, much visited by English, and where Busch and Lambert of Avignon teacL 179. Italian Ch. The sack of Eome, which may be said to terminate the Italian renaissance, breaks up the Oratory of Divine Love, some of its members becoming strongly ultramontane, the more moderate settling in Venice. At the same moment, Ren^e, daughter of Louis XII., marries the Duke of Ferrara, and makes her court the centre of Pro- testant influences in Italy. 180. Swiss Ch. Zwingu's Elenchus contra Catabaptistas records the first Baptist Confession, adherents of which are arowned at Zurich. Berne, &sle, SchafiThausen and St Grail become Protestant. 181. Asiatic Ch. Chaitanya, a Brahman reformer of Vishnuism, dies, and about the same time Vallabha-Swami preaches a sensuous Vish- nuism, and Nanak Shah founds the community of the Sikhs in the Punjab. 182. Art. Sansovino becomes ofiicial architect of Venice. 18$. Science. Paracelsus lectures on Medicine at Basle, and founds the modem science by applying his knowledge of chemistry. 184, History. Maccniavelli's History of Florence traces the operation of political forces. 185. Death. Macchiavelli. 186. ESng. Ch. Fish's Supplication of Beggars, attacking the r^52g avarice of the clergy, the behef in purgatory, etc., is answered by '■ More in his Supplication of Souls, and by Fisher. Tyndal's Obedience of a Christian Man and how Christian Rulers ought to govern, defends Protestants from the charge of being bad subjects, and attacks the clergy and the Papal system. The book falls under the notice of the King. 187. German Ch. Schwenkfeld breaks with the Lutherans, from whom he differs on baptism, justification, the Lord's Supper and Church oi^nisation, and settles in South Germany, where he founds a sect and composes his polemical and mystical works. 188. Italian Ch. The order of the Capucins is founded, as a branch of the Observants (from 1619 self-governing) and is patronised by Caterina Cibo and Vittoria Colonna. 189. Spanish Lit. Juan de Valdez' Dialogo de Mercurio y Caron, the chief prose work of the reign, discusses the political and religious problems of the time. 190. Italian Lit. Castiglione's Courtier, a manual of polite conduct, inspired by the Court of Urbino. 32 pouTics [1528 133. Italy. The last French attack is made on Naples by LautreCi who is routed at Aversa (Aug.) The French at the same time are expelled from Genoa by Doria, who gives the Republic a new Constitution mth a Doge, chosen for two years. 134. En^ancL On the meeting of the Court (May), the Queen [imo appeals to Rome, and Fisher declares for i^he legality of the '- marriage. Campeggio adjourns the Court, the Pope having revoked the cause according to secret agreement. On the failure of his policy, Wolsey is denrived of the seal (Oct.), and his possessions are adjudged to the King, More succeeding him as Chancellor. Cranmer recommends that the Universities should be consulted, and that the case should be dealt with by an English Court. The Seven Years* Parliament meets, the members of which are chiefly lawyers and country gentlemen, in some cases owing their elec- tion to the influence of the Crown. 135. France. A final French expedition to Italy is defeated, and the second war between Francis and Charles terminated by the Peace of Cambrai (Aug.) Francis receives back his sons, renounces his claims on Italy, Flanders and Artois, and pays a large indemnity. 136. Germany. By the Treaty of Barcelona, Charles promises to leave Milan to Sforza for life, to restore the Medici to Florence and to extirpate heresy, Clement undertaking to crown Charles, and to invest him with the kingdom of Naples. The majoritv of the Diet at Spire (March), desiring to annul the Edict of 1526, the Evangelical princes draw up a formal protest, signed by John of Saxony, Hesse, Brandenburg, Brunswick, Anhalt and 14 cities, thus earning the name of Protestants. 137. Switzerland. In consequence of a League formed by Zurich with Constance 1527 and joined by other cities as they become Pro- testant, the Catholic States ally with Austria. War is averted through the intervention of neutral states, the Austrian alliance is broken off and each district is left free to settle its own religion. 138. Turkey. The Turks advance on Vienna, and after three weeks' siege withdraw with great loss. 139. England. Wolsey is restored to partial favour (Feb.), nsao which he loses on the discovery of negociations with Francis, i- He is arrested (Nov.), and dies of fright. The King consults the Universities (Feb.), which return an evasive reply. Parliament urges the Pope, to whom Cranmer has forwarded the opinions of the foreign Universities, to nullify the marriage, warning him that other arrangements may be made. The Pope de- precates the threat, and Henry issues a Proclamation forbidding transactions with Rome and the introduction of Bulls. 140. Italy. Charles is crowned Emperor by the Pope at Bologna. The Hapsburg hegemony in the peninsula is confirmed and the 1630] CULTURE 33 191. Literature. Erasmus satirises the slavish adherence of Humanists like Longolius of Padua to the vocabulary of Cicero in his Ciceronianus, to which Julius Scaliger and Dolet reply. 192. Edacatiozi. Melanchthon propounds his educational reforms. 193. Death. Diirer. 194. French Ch. Despite the efforts of Margaret of Navarre, riRog Berquin, the friend ana translator of the Oerman reformers, is ^ burned. The execution leads to a reaction in the mind of the King. 195. German Ch. Philip of Hesse, desiring Protestant unity and sympathising with the views of the Swiss reformers, invites Luther, Melanchthon and Justus Jonas from Wittenberg, Zwingli and Oeco- lampadius from Switzerland, Bucer, Hedio, Osiander and Brenz from South Germany to Marburg to discuss the theory of the Sacrament. Luther and Zwingli, having already disputed for three years, fail to find a compromise, Luther's deep consciousness of sin rendering a merely commemorative act inadequate for his spiritual needs. The Conference marks the definite severance of the churches. Luther's Larger and Smaller Catechism. 196. Spanish Lit. Guevara's Dial of Princes, a didactic novel with Marcus Aurelius for its hero, creates the style afterwards practised by Lyly, Gongora and Marini (Translated by Lord Bemers, 153L) 197. Education. Influenced by Margaret, Budaeus, and the Bu Bellays, Francis founds the Collie de France for Greek and Hebrew, continuing the work of Lascaris and carrying out a plan suggested by Erasmus. Owing to the hostility of the party of Beda, and to the changeableness of the King, the college for some years maintains a pre- carious life. Additional chairs are gradually endowed. 198. Philology. Budaeus' Commentarii Linguae Graecae. B.obert Stephanus succeeds to his father's printing business at Paris (established about 1502), issues a vast number of works in Greek, Latin and Hebrew, including many of his own editions, and is appointed printer to the King, 1539, but is driven by the Sorbonne to remove to Greneva, 1551. 199. Eng. Ch. Parliament reduces the Probate charged in ricQA Cburch Courts, and forbids the procuring of licenses from Rome ^ for pluralities, the latter Statute striking the first blow against the Papal power. 200. German Ch. Melanchthon represents Lutheranism at the Diet of Augsburg, Luther sta3dng within reach at Coburg. Though admitting the practicfJ identity of doctrine, anxious for a restoration of episcopal authority, and ready to accept the Mass with explanations, Melanch- thon's Confession is ifejected by the Diet. He now draws up an Apology for the Confession, based on the Articles of the Marburg Conference, the Schwabfush and Toi^au Articles. Zwingli sends a Confession; and Bucer and Capito, in a first attempt at an Eirenicon, present the Con- fessio Tetrapmitana, on behalf of four cities of South Germany. The o. .3 34 POLITICS [1630 alliance of Spain and the Papacy commences, Venice alone standing outside their influence. Alexander de Medici is restored by Spanish troops to Rorence, which yields after a long siege, the last relics of the communal rigime being swept away. 141. Switzerland. Geneva becomes independent of the Duke of Savoy. 142. En^and. The clergy forfeit their possessions under Prae- ri 531 munire for recognising Wolsey as Legate, but are allowed to '- compound, on condition of recognising the King as supreme head of the Church of England. They introduce the qualification, *so far as is allowed by the law of Christ/ Convocation urges the withdrawal of Annates from the Pope, adding that, if he retaliate, obedience should be withdrawn. 143. Germany. The Protestant League of Schmalkald is signed by John of Saxony, Hesse, Bruuswick-Luneberg, Anhalt, and many towns, and is welcomed by France and Denmark. 144. Switzerland. The War of the Cantons breaks out and Zwingli is defeated and slain at Cappel. The Peace provides that each Canton should settle its own religious affairs ; but a decided Catholic reaction sets in. 145. America. A rumour spreads that Brazil contains precious metals, the first royal governor is sent out, and the coast is divided into Captaincies. A steady flow of colonists takes place, the sugar-cane is in1ax)duced from Madeira, and negroes are imported from Guinea. 146. En^and. Convocation is forced to sign the Submission of rieon the Clergy, in which it engages neither to meet nor to enact new ^ Canons without the King's leave. On this More resigns the Chancellor- ship. 147. Scotland. James V. founds the College of Justice, modelled on the Parliament of Paris, for civil actions. 148. Germany. Owing to the advance of the Turks into Austria, the Emperor agrees with the Schmalkaldic aUies to the Peace of Nuremberg, by which toleration is guaranteed till a General Council. 149. Italy. Don Pedro de Toledo commences his Viceroyalty, during which he creates modem Naples, introduces law and order, and fortifies the country. 150. England. The King secretly marries Anne (Jan.), and, on riKoo hearinff of the Pope's forthcoming decision, induces Parliament ^ to forbid Appeals to Rome. He forces Convocation to condemn Catherine's marriage (March), and licenses Cranmer to hold a Court, which pronounces the marriage void (May). He ratifies the Act of Annates, passed 1532, and appeals to a General Council. 1633] CULTURE 35 Recess of the Diet forbids Protestant teaching, and orders the restora- tion of Church property, but promises to urge the Pope to summon a Council 201. Philosophy. Agrippa's De Vanitate Scientiarum et Artium. 202, Art. Quintin Matsys dies, and Italian influences become domi- nant in Flemish art with Mabuse and Van Orley, both of whom study in Italy. 203, Eng. Gh. The first collection of English h3rmns and carols, ri rq^ 20i, Swiss Oh. On the death of Zwingli, BuUinger succeeds ^ to his position and in great measure to his influence. 205, Church Hist. Servetus* De Trinitatis Erroribus stimulates the growth of Unitarian ideas, already broached by Denck, Hetzer and Campanus and condemned by the Confession of Au^burg. Cajetan maintains the doctrine of Papal infallibility. 206, Education. Elyot's ' Governor,' a treatise on education, urges gentleness and the study of individuality. Similar ideas are expressed about this time in the De Disciplinis of Vives. 207, Art. Primaticcio is appointed Court painter, and aids Rosso and Benvenuto Cellini in naturalising Italian styles in French art, the supremacy of the School of Tours now coming to an end. ^8, French Ch. The Waldenses declare themselves Pro- rj^ggj testants. '- 209. Swiss Ch. After six years' work in French Switzerland, Farel settles in Geneva and rapidly gains a foothold for Protestantism in the Great Council. 210. French Lit. Rabelais' Pantagruel and Gargantua (1535) sketch a scheme of education, recommenmng the study of the sciences and physical exercises, and satirising scholasticism. 211. Art. The Church of St Eustache, at Paris, is begun, marking the transition from Gothic to Italian, visible also in the UhAteau of Blois, now rebuilt 212. Philology. The Thesaurus Latinus of Stephanus. 21S. Law. The Caroline Code, composed from Roman, German and Christian sources, to reform the criminal jurisprudence of Germany, is published by the Diet of Ratisbon. 2lX Social. The first Bourse is instituted at Antwerp. 215. Eng. Ch. Fryth is burnt for rejecting Transubstantiation, ^^533 though willing to leave it an open question. His death makes *- such a sensation that an Act is passed, forbidding Bishops to proceed ex officio against heretics. 216. "l^nch Ch. The influence of Protestantism at Court reaches its high-water-mark, owing to the death of Louise, the King's mother, and 3—2 36 POLITICS [1533 The Nun of Kent is executed for attacking the religious changes and the divorce, Fisher and others being involved by misprision of treason. 151. France. To render the Council impossible, the Pope enters into close alliance with Francis, to whose son he marries his niece, Catherine de Medici. 152. Hungary. Ferdinand makes peace with the Turks, Solyman receiving the right to be consulted on any measures concerning Hungary. 153. Denmark. On the death of Frederick, the throne is disputed, his son Christian being resisted by the clergy as a Lutheran. Wullenweber, Burgomaster of Luoeck, interposes and schemes to recall Christian IL 154. Turkey. Barbarossa visits Constantinople and rebuilds the Turkish navy, of which he becomes Admiral. The Turks enter on war against Persia, 1533 — 6, and annex part of Georgia. 155. England. Henrv procures from Parliament acts, trans- [1534 ferring the Annates 01 all benefices to the King, regulating the *- appointment of Bishops by a royal cona^ d^lire, abolishing Peter's Pence, transferring to the Archbishop the Pope's right to issue dis- pensations, and directing that appeals from the Archbishop's court should be heard by royal commissioners. The Act of Succession declares Mary illegitimate and Elizabeth heir to the crown. More and Fisher, though willing to recognise any succession appointed by Parliament, refuse to condemn Catherines marriage, and are imprisoned. Parliament passes a new Treason act for denial of the King's titles. 156. Ireland. Kildare is summoned to England and dies in prison, on news of which the Fitzgeralds revolt and are suppressed, six of them being hanged at Tyburn, 1537, a boy of 12 alone surviving. The first great forfeitures are now carried out 157. Germany. The Swabian League being dissolved, Philip of Hesse, with encouragement from Francis and the princes who wish to weaken the Austrian power, resolves to expel King Ferdinand from Wurtem- berg and restore Duke Ulrich. Owing to the Emperor's absence and the Turkish attacks in the Mediterranean, Ferdinand, after a defeat at Laufen, accepts the Treaty of Cadan, but secures recognition as King of the Romans. Ulrich at once introduces the Reformation into Wurtemberg. Lubeck, though failing to carry the other Hanse cities with her^ presses on to the attack of Denmark. 16S4] CULTURE 37 to the influence of Margaret and Madame d'^tampes, the King's mistress. Calvin is resent from punishment for an outspoken sermon to the Sorbonne, Beda, the leader of the obscurantists, is oanished, and Du Bellay sent to negociate with the German Reformers. 217. Italian Gh. Juan Valdez, a Gastilian, who has gone to Italy as an official, gathers round him at Naples a circle including Vittoria Colonna, Giulia Gronzaga, Gaterina CVbo, Peter Martyr, Ochino, Marcantonio Flaminio, GaraccioU, in which reform and doctrinal changes are freely discussed. B18, Hungarian Ch. Though discouraged by both Kings, Lutheranism filters in through Saxony, and is spread by Devay and Honter. 219. Education. Smith becomes Professor of Greek at Cambridge, and does much to popularise its study, preparing the way for his successor, Cheke, 1540. 2W. Art. Michelangelo begins his eight years' labour on the Last Judgment, in the Sistine Chapel. 221. Social. Leland is appointed King's antiquary, and starts on his six years' survey of the libraries of England. 222, Death. Ariosto. Eng. Ch. Fourteen 'Anabaptists' are burnt. ^ 11534 224. French Ch. A violent reaction against the toleration of ■- Protestants sets in at Paris with the mutilation of a f&vourite Madonna and the posting of insulting placards about the city, Margaret being forced to declare herself a Catholic. The translation of the Bible be^n by Farel and continued by Oliv^tan, Calvin's uncle, is published. Calvin, after receiving his education from Mathurin Cordier at Paris and learning Greek at Bourges from a Lutheran, leaves the Church. 225. German Ch. Owing to the Millenarian and Anabaptist teaching of Jan Matthys and Eothmann in Miinster and to its recognition by the Council, refugees enter the city in great numbers. The more violent, under John of Leyden, establish 'The Kingdom of Sion,' a rSgime of communism, polygamy and religious terrorism. 226. Swiss Ch. The First Confession of Sasle, by Oecolampadius and Myconius. 227. Church Hist. Loyola, and his fellow-students at Paris, Salmeron, Xavier, Bobadilla, Lainez, Peter Faber and Bodriguez, take an oath at Montmartre to evangelise Palestine, or, failing that, to put themselves at tihe Pope's orders. ^8. Art. Michelangelo's Moses. 229. Social. English farmers are forbidden to own more than 2,000 sheep, but the attempt to check enclosures fails. 38 pouTics [1536 158. England. The Act of Supremacy proclaims Henry 1-1535 Supreme Head on Earth of the Church of England (Jan.). ^ For refusing to recognise the title, the Prior and several members of the London Carthusians, imprisoned 1534, are executed, Fisher and More ouickly sharing their fate. The new title is attacked by Pole in his De Unitate, for which he is made a Cardinal, and by Gardiner, now Bishop of Winchester, in his De Vera Obedientia. Henry never- theless makes Thomas Cromwell his Vicar-General, suspending the jurisdiction of the Bishops till a Visitation of the monasteries is completed. 159. f'ranoe. After several years of intrigue, Francis openly allies with Solyman, who grants Capitulations to French subjects which still remain in force. 160. Denmark. The Hansa forces are defeated both by land and sea^ and at the Hanseatic Diet Wullenweber is bitterly attacked by members of the aristocratic and Catholic party, and shortly deposed and executed. The dominant party at once recognises Christian UI. as King of Denmark. 161. Itcdy. Francesco Sforza dies, and the Emperor occupies the Milanese. 162. Africa. The Emperor, with a fleet under Doria, defeats Barbarossa and takes Tunis, sacks the city and restores the ruler exiled by Barbarossa as a vassal of Spain. 163. En^and. Henry becomes tired of Anne Boleyn and has ri cog her executed on a charge of infidelity. On the day after the ^ execution he marries Jane Se3rmour, and obtains an Act of Parliament settling the succession on Jane's children, and declaring both Mary and Elizabeth illegitimate. The King persuades Parliament (March) to dissolve all monastic houses with a revenue of less than £200 a year, amounting to 376, on the ground of evil conduct revealed in the reports (though Cromwell's agents had neither time nor wish to learn or state the truth, the crime of the monasteries consisting less in their conduct than in their close relations to the Papal system). The Court of Augmentations is insti- tuted to conduct the dissolution, the members of the dissolved houses being given the choice of entering others or of receiving, in some cases, a small indemnity. Annoyed by the religious innovations, by the violence of the dis- solution, by the cessation of poor-relief, by Cromwell's monopoly of power, by the spread of enclosures, the northern counties break into a revolt under Aske, a lawyer. The Duke of Norfolk, who is sent to crush the ' Pilgrimage of Grace,' finds it too formidable to attack ; and Henry is obliged to issue an amnesty and to promise a Parliament at York. 1636] CULTURE 39 230, En^. Gh. Coverdale's translation of the Bible from Latin n 535 and German is encouraged by Cromwell and the King. ^ 231, Irish Gh. Brown becomes Archbishop of Dublin and the real ruler of the Irish Church for 20 years. 232, French Gh. Paris witnesses the first great Auto-dorfe, the introduction of strict censorship of the press, and the return of Beda. Buprat, however, dies, and is succeeded by the tolerant Dubourg, Francis returning to a policy of conciliation. 233, German Gh. Munster is captured by the Emperor and the Bishop, Protestantism being excluded from the city and the Protestant cause everywhere suffering from the supposed connection with its excesses. The new edition of Melanchthon's Loci diverges from Luther in the treatment of Justification and the Keal Presence, and gives rise to the school of Philippists. 23^, Bohemian Gh. The First Bohemian Confession, probably by John Augusta, is composed and sent to King Ferdinand and to Luther. 235. Italian Gh. The new Pope, Paul IIL, creates the leaders of the reform partv, Pole, Contarini, Sadolet, CaraflFa, Cardinals (Erasmus refuses), and. appoints a Commission on Church Reform, the report of which is drawn up chiefly by Contarini. 236. Scotch liit. Lynd^y's Satire of the Three Estates criticises Church and State. 237. Education. Cromwell issues Injunctions, encouraging the New Learning and forbidding the study of Canon Law or Scholasticism. His visitors find the pages of Duns Scotus scattered about New College. 238. Eng. Gh. The Kin^, with the aid of Cranmer and Fox, r^^^a frames the Ten Articles, m part from the Confession of Augs- ^ burg, to secure uniformity. 239. French Gh. Calvin's Institutes of the Christian Religion. 240. Oerman Gh. The Wittenberg Concordia, composed by Melanch- thon, is accepted by tibie Protestants of South Germany, chiefly owing to Bucer. 241. Netherlands Gh. The moderate anabaptists, under the lead of Menno, dissociate themselves from the extremists, of whom David Joris becomes the leader. About the same time. Families of Love are formed by Henry Nicholas. 2Ji2. Portugaese Gh. The Inquisition is introduced, deals principally with the descendants of the Jews converted 1492, and harasses Damian de Goes and other Humanists. (In 1557, it is made a department of State.) 24s. Danish Gh. At the instance of the King, the Diet deposes the Bishops and secularises much ecclesiastical land. 24J^. Swiss Gh. Farel having, since his arrival in Geneva, 1534, per- suaded the city to adopt Protestantism, induces his friend Calvin to 40 POLITICS [1536 164. Wales. Wales is united to England in matters of law. 165. Ireland. The Irish Parliament registers the Act of Supremacy, dissolves Monasteries, and orders the adoption of the English language, dress and customs. 166. France. France conquers Savoy and Piedmont (Feb.), and repels Charles' invasion of Provence (Julv), and his attack on Marseilles (Sept.) ; the Turkish fleet meanwhile ravages the Italian coast. 167. Germany. The Schmalkaldic League receives as members the princes of Wurtemberg, Pomerania and Anhalt and several cities. 168. Switzerland. The Duke of Savoy attacks Geneva, but is defeated by the aid of Bern and forced to cede part of his territories. 169. En^and. The King, knowing that the Scotch are planning ri 537 an invasion and that role is busy in Flanders, cancels his '- amnesty and executes the leaders of the recent insurrection. A Council of the North is appointed, the nobles being bribed into acquiescence by the grant of the greater monastic houses, which are dissolved in great numbers on charges of complicity in the insurrection or of evil living. 170. Scotland. Despite the efforts of Henry to secure his friendsnip, James enters into a close alliance with France by marrying a daughter of Francis. 171. Germany. The Princes of Brandenburg and Liegnitz form a treaty of mutual inheritance. The Duke of Liegnitz is compelled by Ferdinand, as King of Hungary, to revoke the treaty ; but the revoca- tion is never recognised by the Hohenzollems. 172. Italy. Alessandro de Medici is murdered, and Gosimo, of a collateral branch of the Medici, succeeds, and crushes the conspiracy of Filippo Strozzi, the leader of the Republicans. He annexes Siena, 1555, ana obtains the title of Grand Duke from the Pope, 1569, which the Emperor recognises 1576. 173. En^and. The destruction of the tomb of Becket at 1-1533 Canterbury impels the Pope to launch his excommunication of ^ Henrv, withheld since 1535 at the entreaty of Francis. The Marquis of Exeter, first cousin of the King, and several of the Poles are executed on a charge of conspiracy. 174. Scotland. On the death of his first wife, James marries Mary of Guise. 175. Prance. The third war (1536-8) between Francis and Charles is terminated by the 10 years' Truce of Nice, both retaining their con- quests, the Duke of Savoy thus being excluded. The peace is seemingly confirmed by a personal interview at Aigues-Mortes. 176. Qennany. The Vice-Chancellor Held, acting as the agent of Charles, unites Austria, Bavaria, Brunswick, and George of Saxony in the League of Nuremberg against the Schmalkaldic allies. 1638] CULTURE 41 come to his aid. Galyin draws up a Catechism, which he imposes on eveiy citizen, and creates a spiritual Consistory. BulliDffer, M^couius, and other Zwinglians draw up the First Helvetic Confession, in view of a General Council ^45. Glasaics. Dolet's Commentarii Linguae Latinae. i^46. SociaL The first comprehensive Poor Law forbids becginj^, and ordains the collection of alms for the impotent and the supply of work for others. An attempt is made to free land fit)m ' Uses.' The manufacture of silk is commenced at Lyons by Italians, whom Francis induces to settle there. £47. Death. Erasmua £48. Eng. Ch. The Institution of a Christian Man, a work neov slightly more conservative than the Ten Articles, is composed by ^ a committee of lawyers and divines. £49. Oennan Gh. The Pope having invited Protestants to a General Council at Mantua, the Elector of Saxony orders the preparation of a Creed. Luther therefore draws up the strongly anti- Papal Schmalcald Articles, to which Melanchthon adds an appendix attacking the primacy of the Pope. 230, Danish Ch. To complete the organisation of the Lutheran Church, Bugenhagen is summoned to Copenhagen, draws up a constitu- tion and form of worship, and reorganises the University, of which he becomes Rector and Professor of Theology. i^i. Science. Tarta^lia applies mathematics to military defence, and explains the curve of bullets, etc. 25S, Education. The University is finally transferred from Lisbon to Coimbra, and enters on its golden age with Andrea Oovea and Buchanan. John Sturm begins to teach classics in Strassburg, his school soon containing 1000 boys. ^S. History. Guicciardini loses influence, retires to his home, and composes his Florentine History and his Maxims. £54 Eng. Ch. Cromwell, as Vicar-General, issues Injunctions, riKog e.g. that a^ Bible should be placed in every Church. Some ^ Lutheran divines, however, invited to England by Cranmer, ofiend the King by criticising the English ChurcL From tms moment a reaction in Henry's mind begins. £55. Scotch Ch. Buchanan attacks the clergy in his Franciscanus. £56, French Ch. The pjersecution of Protestantism recommences. £57» Swiss Ch. Calvin is compelled to leave Geneva for Strassburg. 258. French Lit. Desp^riers, an imitator of Babelais, mocks at all religions in his Cymbafum Mundi, which the Sorbonne bums. £59, Oeiman Lit. Eifchmayer's Pammachius, a Protestant picture of Anti-Christ and the typical drama of the Reformation. 42 POLITICS [ 1638 177. Spain. The Nobles and Clergy are excluded from the Castiliau Cortes, deputies of the cities alone being admitted. 178. Hungary. The rivals agree that Ferdinand shall rule Hungary on the death of Zapolya. 179. Turkey. Barbarossa takes Morea and part of the Archipelago from Venice. 180. England. Parliament declares the proclamations of the riRog King as valid as its own Acts. It also presents to the King the ^ property of the remaining monasteries, most of which he gives or sells to new families, a small part being devoted to the endowment of six new Bishoprics and the construction of ships and fortifications. The dis- appearance of the Abbots from the Upper House gives the secular peers a majority. 181. Scotland. David Beaton succeeds his uncle as Archbishop of St Andrews, and becomes chief adviser to the King, supporting the anti-English policy to which James has pledg|ed himself. 182. Qeimany. JDuke George of Saxony, a vigorous opponent of the Reformation, dies and is succeeded by his brother Henry, who intro- duces Lutheranism. At the same moment, Joachim, Elector of Brandenburg, allows the adoption of Protestantism, the old faith now being represented in North Germany by Brunswick alone. 183. America. De Soto lands with a large arm^ in Florida, and pushes North- West to the Mississippi, where the survivors of the expedition build boats and sail down to Mexico, 1543. 184. England. To pledge the King to a Protestant policy ri54Q beyond power of drawing back, Cromwell persuades him to marry ^ Anne of Cleves, of whom Holbein paints a too flattering portrait. Henry, however, becomes anxious for the friendship of the Emperor, divorces Anue and sacrifices Cromwell ^condemned by a bill of attainder without being heard in his own deieuce,) to the nobles, of whom Norfolk, the uncle of the new Queen, Eatherine Howard, exercises the chief power. 185. Netherlands. Ghent, which has refused a subsidy, 1536, offers its allegiance to Francis, who informs the Emperor. All charters are therefore annulled, ^d property is confiscated, the commercial prosperity of the city is crippled, and the way is prepared for the war of independence. The Emperor makes Beni of Chalons Stadtholder in Holland, Zealand and Utrecht, thus introducing the family of Orange. 186. Hungary. Zapolya dies, but the treaty of 1538 is broken by the proclamation of his son as King and his recognition by the Sultan, who, however, in the following year carves out for himself a province with the capital at Buda, between Western or Austrian Hungary and Transylvania, and compels Ferdinand to pay tribute for the former. 1640] CULTURE 48 260. Politics. Melanchthon's Ethicae Doctrinae Elementa contains the first Protestant statement of Natural Bight. 261, Philology. Postel, after two journeys in the East, becomes the first Professor of Oriental Languages at the Collie de France. 262. Eng. Ch. The Eang persuades Convocation and Parlia- [1539 ment to enact Six Articles, afiirming transubstantiation, Com- ^ munion in one kind, clerical celibacy, the perpetual obligation of vows of chastity, private masses and confession. Savage penalties are attached, but are not often applied. Latimer is driven from his see and Cranmer forced to dismiss his wife. The Qreat Bible, a revision of T3mdale's and Goverdale's, is printed by royal letters-patent. 26S, German Gn. Philip of Hesse, desiring to take a second wife into his household, consults Luther, Melanchthon and Bucer, who reply that the practice is sanctioned by the 0. T., and not forbidden by the N. T. The marriage and its sanction by the Protestant leaders form an effective weapon against the Lutheran cause. 264. Swiss Ch. Cardinal Sadoleto writes an open letter to the Genevese, urging them to return to the Church, ana provokes a spirited reply firom Calvin. Calvin's first Commentary on the Epistle to the Bomans. 265, Oerxnan Ch. The Lutherans formally condemn the v-i^^ mystical Pantheists, Franck and Schwenkfeld. '- John Agricola leaves Wittenberg, after quarrelling with Luther and Melanchthon, on account of the stress they lay on the observance of the law. Melanchthon revises the Confession of Augsburg, especially in regard to the Beal Presence and Justification, the changes bein^ adopted at the Conference of Worms. The Confessio Variata is signed by Calvin, and used at Regensburg, 1541, and elsewhere. 266, Italian Gh. An anonymous tract on the Benefits of Christ's Deaths written from the standpoint of Luther's theory of Justification, finds an immense circulation, and powerfully contributes to the spread of Protestantism in Italy. Steuco, Librarian of the Vatican, maintains, in his De Perenni Philosophia, that the Christian doctrines of the Trinity, Creation, Immor^Jity prevailed in the earliest times and in all lands. 267, Ghiircli Hist. Loyola and his companions, adding to the vows of Poverty, Chastity and Obedience an oath of obedience to the Pope, are constituted the Society of Jesus bv a Papal Bull, Loyola being chosen first General, 1541, and are urged to devote themselves to missionary and educational work in Europe. 268, Art, Tallis is appointed to the Chapel Royal, and begins his long series of compositions of Church Music, some of which are designed for 44 POLITICS [1540 187. America. Cartier returns to the Saint Lawrence with five ships, and attempts to found a settlement. Attracted by the stories of wealth collected by Narvaez (1528-36) and others, an expedition under Coronado is sent northwards from Mexico, but, after marching as far as Nebraska, returns without finding gold. 188. Asia. After 10 years of fighting, Hamayun is driven out of India by Afghan settlers under Sher Shah who becomes Emperor of Delhi. 189. England. Margaret, Countess of Salisbury, daughter of n^i Clarence, is executed on a charge of conspiracy, but in r^ity for ^ being mother of Cardinal Pole. 190. Africa. The Emperor fails in an attack on Algiers, his fleet being destroyed by a storm, and leaves the Mediterranean in the hands of the French and the Turks. A Spanish expedition to Jerba, 1560, is repulsed, and in 1574, with the with(h:awal from Goletta, Spanish influence over Tunis comes to an end. 191. Scotland. After a period of uneasy peace, war breaks out 1-1542 again, and Norfolk ravages the border. A Scotch army enters *■ Cumberland, but flies in panic to Solway Moss, where nearly all the troops are slain or captured. James V. dies a few days later, leaving the throne to his daughter Mary, now a week old. 192. Ireland. Henry is acknowledged King of Ireland by a Parliament at Dublin, attended by native chiefs, to whom he gives English titles and abbey lands, the change of title (from that of Lord, granted to Heng^ II. by the Pope) serving to mark his independence of Kome. 193. France. Francis allies with Denmark and Sweden and commences his fourth war against Charles in the Netherlands, in Italy and on the Spanish frontier, owing to the investiture of Charles' son with Milan. 194. Germany. At the Diet of Spires, the Protestants contribute money for use against the Turks, in return for a five years' truce. The Duke of Brunswick, refusing to obey the Becess of the Diet of Batisbon, is expelled by the Schmalkaldic League, which establishes Protestantism in his dominions. Indignant at this treatment, the Elector of Brandenburg withdraws from the League and secretly joins the Emperor, his example being followed by Duke Maurice of Saxony, who covets the possessions of his Ernestine cousin. 195. America. Koberval arrives in Canada as Viceroy ; but the colonists whom he brings are forced to return after two years, and the settlement of Canada is postponed for half a century. 1542] CULTURE 45 use with the new Prayer-book. With Byrd, Orlando Gibbons, etc., he forms the so-called Sixth English School. £69, Philology. Scaliger^s 3e Gausis Linguae Latinae. ^0. Education. The Begins Professorships of Divinity, Law, Physics, Hebrew and Greek are instituted at Oxford and Gambridge. £71. Deaths. Budaeus, Guicciardini, Vives. 272. Gemxan Ch. At the Diet of B^tisbon, the most important n 547 of several similar attempts at reunion, Melanchthon ana Bucer ^ meet Contarini, the Legate, who approximates to the Lutheran view of Justification, but cannot persuade the Pope to allow re-union on that basis, nor to accept his compromise in relation to the Papal Supremacy. Though re-union is not achieved, the Treaty of Nuremberg is confirmed and Protestants are allowed to enter the Imperial Chamber. 273. Swiss Ch. Calvin returns to Geneva, on the invitation of the city, which now accepts his Ordonnances Eccl^siastiques, and restores the Consistory of pastors and lay elders. His opponents, the so-called Libertines, whom ne attacks in a vigorous polemic, 1545, are one after another executed or banished. Calvin's Tract on the Lord's Supper. 274* Deaths. Paracelsus, Pizarro. 275. German Ch. Luther provokes violent hostility by conse- ri 542 crating a Bishop. *- 276. Italian Ch. The establishment of the Inquisition at Rome, on the advice and under the direction of Caraffa, initiates the crusade against Protestantism throughout Italy. Ochino, already charged with heresy, now declares his conversion and flees to Geneva, and the circle at Ferrara is scattered. ^ 277. Asiatic Ch. Xavier's expedition to Goa initiates mission work in the East, he himself passing on to Japan, 1549. (Nagasaki becomes laigely Christianised, 1573.) 278. Church Hist. Luther attacks the Jews in his Juden und ihre Lugen. 279. Spanish Lit. Montemayor's Diana naturalises the pastoral romance. 280. Science. Vesalius of Brussels founds modem Anatomy by his Fabrica Corporis Humani, in which he incorporates the researches of Mnndino, Achillini, Berenger of Carpi, openly parts fh)m Sylvius, his old Paris teacher, a follower of Galen, ana introduces illustrations of his researches on human bodies.^ 281. Art. The Academia Yitruviana, which is now founded in Home, marks, with the treatises of Palladio, the supremacy of classic models in architecture. 282. Education. Castellio, Hector of the college at Geneva, composes his Dialogues Sacr^s, a favourite school-book of Latin for 200 years. 46 POLITICS [1643 196. England. Henry marries Eatherine Parr, with whom Pro- ri54o testant influences reappear at Court. *■ 197. Wales. The country is divided into counties, and the Court of the Welsh Marches is instituted. 198. Scotland. A Treaty for the marriage of Prince Edward with Mary, who is to be sent to England in 10 years, is negociated, but fails, owin^ to the hostility of Beaton, the Queen-mother and Bishop Hamilton, whose party the Regent Angus joins. 199. France. Francis defeats Charles at Landre^ies, and, with the aid of the Turkish fleet, which now sails the Mediterranean unchallenged, captures Nice from Savoy. The Emperor, however, compels the Duke of Cleves to yield Gelderland. 200. Qermany. The Archbishop of Cologne is deposed for admitting Protestantism, to which he has been drawn by Bucer, into his dominions. 201. England. Henry, having allied with Charles, 1543, invades n 544 Picardy and captures Boulogne, the expense being in part provided *■ by debasing the coinage. At the same moment, Parliament declares that the King need not repay a loan which he has collected. 202. Scotland. Hertford and Lisle invade Scotland, ravage the Low- lands and bum Edinburgh. 203. Germany. At the Diet of Spires, Charles, on promising a Council in Germany or a Diet to deal with religion, receives supplies against the French and Turks, invades Champagne and threatens Paris. The last war of Francis and Charles is, however, terminated by the peace of Cr^pi (Sept.), concluded without consulting England. Conquests on both sides since the truce of Nice, 1538, are restored; Francis sur- renders his claims to Naples, Flanders, Artois, Gelderland, and Charles his claim to Burgundy, though retaining Milan as a fief for Philip. A marriage alliance is also discussed. 204. Savoy. The Peace of Cr^pi decrees the restoration of his estates to Charles of Savoy, which, however, is not carried out. 205. Sweden. On the attempt of Christian HI. of Denmark to win the Emperor's aid against Sweden, Gustavus makes a close alliance with France, and enters into European politics. 206. Hungary. Solyman divides Hungary into 12 administrative dis- tricts. 207. England. A benevolence of 1/8 in the £ on land and lOd. m 545 in the £ on goods is levied to combat the French, who land on l*-*^^ the Isle of W ight. 208. Scotland. A division of the English army is defeated at Ancrum Moor, after which reinforcements are sent, and the ravages are recom- menced. 209. Italy. The Pope creates the duchy of Parma and Piacenza for his son, Piero Farnese. 1545] CULTURB 47 28S. Eng. Gh. The Erudition of a Christian Man, issued by r^^^ the King's orders, is substituted for the more Protestant Institu- ^ tion. 284, Spanish Gh. The first Protestant is burned; Enadna is im- prisoned for his translation of the New Testament ; and Juan Diaz is murdered by his brother, 1546. 285, Spanish Lit. Oarcilaso's poems carry on the tradition of Boscan. 286. ^lilosophy. Bamus' Animadversiones Aristotelicae is condemned by the Sorbonne and attacked by Schegk and others, but creates a school, influences Taureilus, Patrizzi, Bruno, Gassendi, the logicians of Port-Royd, and finds its way into most Protestant Universities in Germany, and into England and Scotland. 287. Science. Copernicus' De Bevolutionibus Orbis Terrarum rejects Ptolemy's explanation of the movements of the planets by the theory of epicycles. The new teaching is tabulated and spread bv Reinhold and Maestlin, but is combated bv Maurolycus and Tycho Brahe, and remains little known till championed by Bruno^ Campanella, Kepler and Galileo. S!88, Deaths. Copernicus, Holbein. 289, Eng. Ch. Cranmer lays the foundation of the English ri 5^ Prayer-book by composing a Litany, prayers for the King and ^ private devotions. £90, Oerman Ch. Luther makes a final attack on the sacramental theory of the Zuinglians. 291. Church Hist. In consequence of the Emperor^s explicit utterances at the Diet of Spires, the Pope summons a Council to meet at Trent in 1545. 292. French Lit. Margaret of Navarre's Heptameron, aided by Desp^riers, on the model of Boccaccio. Maurice Serve's D^lie creates the ' Lyons school,* inspired by Plato and Petrarch and developed by Louise Lab^. £9S. Eng. Ch. The dissolution of Chantries is decreed. ^ ri545 £94. French Ch. Francis almost exterminates the Vaudois. ^ £95. Spanish Ch. St Peter of Alcantara's De Oratione et Meditatione initiates Catholic mysticism in Spain. £96. Church Hist. The long-promised Council is opened at Trent (Dec.). Cardinal Del Monte presides, and Charles sends Mendoza as his ambassador. Pacheco, Carranza and Soto represent Spain. No German prelates are present. £97. Science. Cardan's Ars Magna communicates Tartaglia's plan of solving cubic equations. Park's Mani^re de traitez les Plaies founds modem surgery by substituting ligature for cauterisation. 48 POLITICS [1545 210. Germany. A truce is made with the Turks, and the Emperor, now everywhere at peace, becomes ready for the Council. 211. Asia. John ae Castro is appointed Viceroy of Portuguese India, defeats a large Turkish fleet ana the King of Gujarat in a pitched battle, and reforms the administration, dying 1548. 212. En^and. Henry arrests Norfolk and his son Surrey, the n^^ poet, for treason. ^ 213. Scotland. Wishart is arrested and burned by Beaton, partly for heresy and partly for joining in a plot to murder him. His death inflames the English party among the nobles, of whom Leslie and Eirkaldy of Grange, both in Henry's pay, murder the Cardinal at St Andrews. 214. France. Henry makes peace with France, in which Scotland is included, undertaking, on payment of a large sum, to restore Boulogne. 215. Germany. The death of Luther (Feb.) gives the signal for the civil war so lon^ expected. John Frederick and Philip are put to the ban of the Empire (Julv). Duke Maurice of Saxony secretly joins the Emperor and occupies the Electorate, and Charles reduces the members of tne League in South Germany. 216. Turkey. The Turks occupy Moldavia. 217. En^and. Surrey is executed (Norfolk being saved by the [3^547 King's death), the conservative party bein^ so weakened that ^ Henry's plan of a balance in the Council is set aside and Hertford is made Protector with the title of Duke of Somerset. The newly-made treasons, and the Act giving legal force to Proclamations are repealed. Parliament vests in me King the endowments of all Chantries and religious societies dissolved by the Act of 1545, but only now executed. 218. Scotland. St Andrews being recaptured by a French fleet, Somerset determines to force on the mamage of Ekiward with Mary, and destroys the Scotch army at Musselburgh, where the English navy for the first time cooperates with the army, and at Pinkie Cleugh, and bums Holyrood and Leith. 219. Prance. The new King, Henry H., still further increases the royal power b^ appointing Intendants of Police and Justice, and insti- tuting new tnbunals overriding the Seignorial Courts. 220. Germany. The Emperor routs the Schmalkaldic allies at Muhl- berg (April), John Fredenck of Saxony is captured and his electorate and nearly all his dominions transferred to Maurice, only a few scattered territories in Thuringia being reserved for his sons. Philip of Hesse submits, the Duke of Brunswick is restored to his duchy, all North Germany except the city of Magdeburg is reduced, and Protestantism enters on its most critical jperiod. Ferdinand invades Bohemia, which refuses troops to the Emperor, makes it a hereditary possession, and curtails the privileges of the nation. 1647] CULTURB 49 298» Art Cellini sculptures Perseus (Florence). 299. Edocatiozi. Henry VIII. refounds Wolsey's College as Christ Ghorch. SOO. Social. Silver mines are opened in Potosi, in Peru, the output firom which largely decreases the value of money. 501, French Ch. Dolet, the printer of Lyons and the leading ri 540 scholar and humanist of France, is burned at Paris for printing ^ Protestant books and- disbelieving in the immortality of the soid^ The first edition of Stephanus' N. T., based on the Complutensian and on that of Erasmus. 502, Church Hist. The Council of Trent declares revelation con- tinuous in the Church of which the Pope is the head, maintains the sole authority of the Vulgate, and forbidjs monks to preach without the Bishop's license except in churches of their own order. SOS^ Science. Agricola's De Ke Metallica founds mineralogy, to which few additions are made for two centuries. 304* Art. Palissy makes a white enamel Lescot begins his 30 years' labours on the construction of the Louvre, Jean (Joujon undertaking the sculptural decoration. Michelangelo designs the dome of St Peter's. $05. Education. Trinilnr College, Cambridge, is founded by Henry VIII., by combining King's HaU and Michaelhouse and adding monastic lands. liie first three Masters and many of the lecturers are drawn from St John's College. 306. Death. Luther. S07. Eng. Ch. Bonner and Tunstal are deprived, and Gardiner n547 is imprisoned. A visitation is commenced, homilies and^ the ^ Paraphrases of Erasmus are circulated, and the cup is given to the laity. Peter Martyr teaches theology at Oxford. 3X>8. Italian Ch. An attempt to introduce the Spanish Inquisition into Naples fails. S09, Church Hist. Luther's theory of Justification is condemned, the doctrine of the sacraments is defined, and a compromise is reached in reference to episcopal residence, forbidding plurahsm but safeguarding the Papal dispensing power. The Pope, reljdng on the support of France, revokes the Council to Bologna on the plea of the plague (March). Most of the Spanish Bishops, however, refuse to leave Trent, neither branch dares to continue work, and the Pope shortly postpones the Council indefinitely. 310. Social. The King confiscates the religious endowments of the English gilds, the influence of which henceforward steadily diminishes. 311. Deaths. Bembo, Vittoria Colonna, Sadoleto. 60 POLITICS [1547 221. Russia. Ivan IV. is crowned, assumes the title of Tsar, takes Kazan (1548) and Astrakhan (1550) from the Mongols, thus extending Russia to the Caspian, strengthens the defences, reorganises the Church, introduces a printmg-press and institutes schools. 222. Qermany. At the Diet of Augsburg, the Emperor carries [1543 his proposals without opposition. The Imperial Chamber is re- ^ constituted, the appointment of its members being vested in the Emperor ; the Netherlands are formed into a Circle of the Empire ; and a new military treasury is formed under the Emperor's control 223. Scotland. Mary is sent for protection to France. 224. Italy. Henry of France occupies the marquisate of Saluzzo. 225. Asia. Mendez Pinto establishes a factory in Japan and opens up the country to Portuguese settlers. 226. Engllaiid. A rebellion, provoked by the innovations of the n e4A Council, and, above all, by the issue of the new Prayer-Book, L-''^*^ breaks out in Devon and Cornwall, and is put down with difficulty by Russell with foreign mercenaries. Simultaneously, a rising takes place in Norfolk, provoked chiefly by enclosures, led by Ket, who establishes a camp on Mousehold Hill. Palings near Norwich are pulled down, but the revolt, despite the svmpathv of the Protector, is suppressed by Dudley, Earl of Warwick. The failure of Somerset's foreign policy and his unpopularity in the country embolden the Council to depose him and to abolish the Protectorate, Warwick at once assuming a leading position. 227. America. De Sousa arrives in Brazil with troops, officials and Jesuits and covems with remarkable ability, the natives being well treated and tne Inquisition excluded. 228. En^and. Warwick makes peace with France, surrenderinc ri rca Boulogne, and with Scotland, pnsoners being released on both *- sides. At this moment, Somerset regains some power in the Council. 229. Africa. Fez is captured by the Sheriffs of Morocco. 230. Oermany. The Emperor attempts to secure the succession of his son Philip to the Empire, but is resisted by his brother Ferdinand, King of the Romans, and by several German princes. At this moment, Maurice of Saxony, feeling that the Emperor has nothing more to give him, resolves to desert the Imperial cause, and refuses to appear at the Diet of Augsburg, ostensibly because Philip of Hesse is not released from imprisonment. 1660] CULTURE 51 S12. Eng. Ch. A new Communioii Office is established by ^1540 proclamation of the Council, images are removed, and preaching ^ IS forbidden. SIS, Gennan Ch. Owing to his quarrel with the Pope, the Emperor asks the Diet to accept the Interim, conceding the cup and the marriage of the clergy. The interim leads to a fierce strife between the A- Iasco, a Pole, receives the Church of the Augustinians for refugees, the congre^tion appointing its officers. Henry Nicholas, a friend of David Joris, a mystical Pantheist, founds Families of Love among the Dutch refugees. S2S. Netherlands Ch. The Em^ror establishes the Inquisition. 324. Eng. Lit. Udall's Balph Roister Doister founds English comedy. 825. Death. Alciati. 4—2 52 POLITICS [1661 231. Englland. The King and Warwick attempt to forbid nRKi Mary to hear Mass, but yield before the displeasure of the ■- Emperor. Warwick's growing unpopularity strengthens Somerset, but the King sides with Warwick and nas his unde arrested, and (1552) executed. 232. Germany. Maurice, o^dng to the Emperor still refusing to release his father-in-law, Philip of Hesse, undertakes to force the acceptance of the Interim on Magdeburg, the head-quarters of opposition, as a pretext for collecting an army, and allies with the Protestant Princes. 233. Turkey. The Turks attack Malta, without success. 234. Africa. Tripoli is taken from the Knights of St John, by Dragut» once a lieutenant of Barbarossa. 235. Qermany. The Protestant Princes persuade Henry 11. to n 550 join them against the Emperor, promising him the rule of Metz, *- Toul, Verdun and Gambray as Imperial yicar. Maurice, having termi- nated the siege of Magdeburg, openly deserts the Emperor, seizes Augsburg, and only misses the capture of Charles at Innsbruck by a few hours. The Emperor therefore empowers Ferdinand to conclude peace at Passau. Jonn Frederick of Saxony and Philip of Hesse are released (though the Electoral dignity is never restored to the Ernestine branch), the Lutherans are allowed free exercise of their religion and admitted into the Imperial Chamber, and a Diet is promised to effect a permanent settlement. 236. France. Meanwhile the French overrun Lorraine and occupy Toul, Verdun, and Metz (April), the latter of which Charles attempts to retake (Oct.). He is, however, forced by the winter to withdraw, leaving the border fortresses in Henry's possession. 237. Hungary. The Turks take Temesvar. 238. Englland. Northumberland, observing that the King can- m 553 not live long, and, dreading the accession of Mary, induces ^ him to set aside his father's Will, though sanctioned by Parliament, and to leave the crown to Jane Grey, a Protestant, the granddaughter of Mary, younger sister of Henry VIIL, whom he marries to his son. The Council, at the entreaty of the d^g King, signs the Will, and, on Edward's death. Lady Jane is proclaimed Queen (July). Owinff, how- ever, to the unpopularity of Northumberland, she is deserted by the troops, and Mary, who had fled to the Howards in Norfolk, is pro- claimed Queen in London. Northumberland is executed and Gardmer becomes Chancellor, and shapes the Queen's policy till the arrival of Pole. The Parliament which now meets, though not disapproving the 1663] CULTURE 53 526. German. Ch. Major declares good works necessary to mrri salvation, and is attacked \>j Amsdorf >- 527. Italian Ch. The Jesuits found the Golledo Bomano. 528. Clmrcli Hist. The new Pope, Julius 111., allows the Bishops to reassemble at Trent, but the Council, to which certain Protestant princes send ambassadors, is paralysed by the refusal of France to join, and, after defining the Eucharist, is suspended (1552), on pretext of danger from the army of Maurice of Saxony. 529. German Lit. Wickram's novels of bourgeois life. SSO, Science. Gesner's Historia Animalium, the first original work on Zoology since Aristotle and Theophrastus. 531. £>cial. The English currency reaches its greatest debasement 532. Death. Bucer. 833. Bng. Oh. The Prayer-Book is revised by Cranmer, Bidley, 1^552 Cox, Taylor, on the lines of the Swiss reformers. ■- 334. Scotch Gh. Hoping to retain waverers in the Church, Arch- bishop Hamilton issues a Catechism omitting mention of the Papal supremacy. 335. German Ch. Westphal of Hamburg attacks Cm)to-Calvinist notions of the Lord's Supper, held by Major and Peucer, Melanchthon's son-in-law. 336. Swiss Ch. Calvin replies to Bolsec's attack on Predestination. 337. Russian Ch. A few Bohemian Brothers enter the country ; but neither Protestantism nor Boman Catholicism, which the Jesuit Possevin is sent to champion, ^ns anv foothold. 338. Scotch Lit. Sir David Lyndsay's Monarchy, an historical and philosophical survey with a strong anti-Catholic bias. 339. French Ut. Jodelle's Cl^natre founds the classical drama, developed by Gr^vin, Gamier, Haray, and Montchr^tien, etc. In the same year Jodelle's La Bencontre, the first French comedy, is produced. 340. kit. Vignola builds the Villa di Papa Giulio outside Bome, and explains the 'Jesuit' style in his Trattato degli Ordini. 341. Edncation. Christ's Hospital and over 30 grammar schools are founded by the King, whose interest in education is aroused by Bidley. 342. Death. Xavier. 34s. Bng. Ch. The Confession of Faith, drafted by Cranmer r^ggg and Bidley, on the basis of the 13 Articles agreed on by Cranmer \ and the Lutheran divines, 1538, is ratified by Convocation, and published by the Eing^s command in 42 Articles. On the accession of Mary, the imprisoned Bishops axe restored, the foreign refugees leave the country, and the Beforming Bishops are com- mitted to the Tower. The Commons repeal the religious legislation of Edward VL, but retain that of Henry VIH. 54 POLITICS [1663 Queen's Ghurcli policy, i>etition8 against the Spanish marriage now being negociated, and is in consequence dissolved. 239. Germany. Rendered reckless by his losses, the Emperor en- courages Albert of Brandenburg (who refused to lay down his arms at Fassau, but subsequently joinea Charles) in his raids, thereby alienating both classes of his subjects, and driving Ferdinand to form a league to fuarantee the execution of the provisions of Fassau, and to oppose ^hilip's succession to the Impenal dignity. Maurice undertakes to r^uce Albert, and routs him in a battle in which he loses his life. Albert, in consequence, recovers his position, but, after repeated defeats, retires to France and enters the service of Henry. 240. Africa. English trading ships visit the West African coast for the first time. 241. Engllaiid. The opposition to the Spanish marriage culmi- r]^55^ nates in a revolt, led by Wyatt, in Kent, and Suffolk, father of ^ Lady Jane, in the Midlands, with a view to make Elizabeth Queen. Suffolk fails, but Wyatt reaches London, where he is defeated and captured. Lady Jane, her husband, and her father are executed, and Elizabeth imprisoned. Farliament consents to the Spanish match, and Fhilip comes to Endand and marries Mary (July). A new Farliament is summoned, whicn repeals all statutes against the Fope since 1529, on condition that the surrender of the abbey lands is not demanded. The Kingdom is received back into the jurisdiction of the Pope by Fole, who, though appointed Legate on Mary's accession, is only now allowed by the Emperor to enter the country. 242. Scotland. The Queen Mother, by the aid of France, obtains the regency from Arran, whose avarice and weakness have rendered him unpopular. She alienates the nobles, however, by filling offices with foreigners, garrisons Dunbar with French soldiers, and proposes to levy taxes for a standing army. 243. En^and. The Queen restores all Church property vested n 555 in the (>owd, and a few monastic houses are in consequence re- *■ founded. 244. Oermany. The Diet promised at Fassau meets at Augsburg, under the Emperor's ^enipotentiary, Ferdinand, repeats the principle of Gujus Re^o, Ejus Keligio, laid down at Spires, 1526, ana admits both parties m equal numbers to the Imperial Chamber. Secularisations of Church property before 1552 are confirmed, but Ferdinand and the Catholics insist on an Ecclesiastic Reservation, by which future converts to Lutheranism shall resign their offices and patronage. Against this the Lutherans issue a protest, which is iucorporated in the Treaty. Though recognising no rrotestants except Lutherans, and conceding no individual freedom of conscience, the Treaty forms the basis of religious and political life in Oermany till the Thirty Years' War. 1666] CULTURE 55 344^ Swiss Ch. Servetas' GhristiaDismi Restitutio, a scheme of Neo- Platonism, leads Calyin to obtain the author's prosecution at Lyons, and to send his letters and notes on the Institutes. On escaping from Lyons, Servetus is arrested in Geneva and burned. His punishment is censured by Gastellio but applauded by Beza, Melanchthon, and Bullinger. Unitarianism, however, is taugnt in Geneva and Zurich by the Italian refugees, Gribaldo, Biandrata, Alciati, Gentile, Ochino, and carried to Poland and Transylvania. 34s. Chnrcli Hist. Hosius' Confessio Fidei Catholicae, a popular symbol. 346, Geography. Furnished with plans by Cabot, Chancellor and Willoughby start on the North-East passage to China. Willoughb'y is lost, but Chancellor lands at Archangel, reaches Moscow, and opens up commerce, for which the Muscovy Company is chartered, 1554. 347. Death. Rabelais. 34s. Eng. Ch. Mary enjoins clerical celibacy. Convocation riexA elicits firom Cranmer, Latimer, and Ridley that they reject '- Transubstantiation. 349. Church Hist. Enoz becomes minister of the English refugees at Frankfort, but is expelled on the arrival of Richard >Gox and others, 1555, who desire the ritual of the Prayer-Book. 350. Italian Lit. Bandello's collection of Tales, a quarry for Shake- speare and other dramatists. Sol. Spanish Lit. Lazarillo de Tonnes, long ascribed to Mendoza, the first example of the picaresque novel. 362. Art Antonio Moro, a Fleming, educated in Italy, settles in England as Court painter to Philip and Mary. 353. Science. Rondelet's Historia riscium and Belon's De Aquatilibus found Ichthyology. 354. Philosophy. Cardan's De Varietate Rerum relates the psychic experiences of the author and his father. 355. Death. Cortes. 366. 'Eng. Ch. Strengthened by her husband, Mary appoints ^^555 Gardiner (shortly replaced by Bonner), Tunstal, and 3 other '- Bishops to try heretics. Refers (the Matthew of Matthew's Bible) suffers at Smithfield, Hooper at Gloucester, Rowland Taylor in Suffolk, and Ridley and Latimer at Oxford (Oct.). 367. French Ch. An attempt by the Cardinal of Guise to revive persecution is frustrated by Parliament, and the first Protestant Church in Paris is instituted on a Presbyterian basis. 368. German Ch. Pfeffinger's De Libero Arbitrio, developing Me- lanchthon's Synergism, is opposed bv Flacius and Amsdorf, who maintain that man can oppose but cannot &cilitate the workings of Grace, the synergistic controversy lasting for twelve years. 56 POLITICS [1666 In consequence of the failure of his schemes, the accession of the anti-Hapsburg Pope, Paul IV., and advancinff age, the Emperor resigns the Netherlands and his Italian provinces to his son Philip. 245. America. Villegagnon, with the approval of Coligny, founds a Huguenot colony in Kio Bay, which is suppressed by the rortuguese, 1558. 246. EngllaixcL Sir Henry Dudley, the cousin of Northumber* nRRg land, and a number of young nobles plot to dethrone Mary and ^ make Elizabeth Queen. The plan, however, is betrayed, and the con- spirators are executed. 247. Oermany. The Emperor transfers the Spanish crown to his son, and his German ^ssessions to his brother. He resigns the Empire, commending Ferdinand to the Electors, and retires to the monastery of San Juste, in Spain, though remaining busily occupied with politics till his death, 1558. 248. Italy. The new Pope, wishing to take advantage of Philip's youth, bribes Henry II. with the promise of Naples to send Guise into Italy to expel the Spaniards. Alva, the Governor of Naples, however, repels the invasion, but, from reverence for the Papacy, refrains from seizing Rome, and thus gives Guise time to raise new troops. 249. Asia. Bairam Ehan and Akbar, the 14-year-old son of Hamaioun, defeat the Afghan dynasty at Panipat, and finally win India. Shortly after the battle, Hamaioun dies and is succeeded by Akbar, under the regency of Bairam Khan. 250. En^and. Sir Thomas Stafford, an exile at the Court of r^^^„ Paris, sails for England with two ships and seizes Scarborough ^ castle. The people refuse to rise against the queen, and the rebels are executed. 251. Scotland. The first Covenant is drawn up by Argyll and Morton, renouncing the ' Congregation of Satan,' and resolving on Protestant worship in private houses. 252. Italy. Guise again invades Italy, but Alva bribes Parma and Tuscany with lands and repels the French, the Spanish supremacy not being again challenged. 253. France. A Spanish army under the Duke of Savoy, who wishes to recover his Duchy, besieges St Quentin, and is routed by the relieving army (Aug.), before the English troops, which Mary sends to her husband, arrive. Philip, however, refuses to risk an advance on Paris. 254. Asia. The Portugese, who have carried on trade with China since 1517 and established two factories, withdraw to Macao, near Canton, and are recognised as independent, 1587. 1667] CULTURE 57 559. Spaniflh Ch. Peter of Alcantara, a Franciscan, the earliest of Spanish mystics, founds the conmgation of the Barefooted Friars. 560. Swiss Ch* A final revolt of the Libertines in Geneva, under Ami Perrin, is suppressed. 361, Polisli Ch* Calvinism having spread among the nobles and Lutheranism among the citizens, owing to the tolerance of the King, a Synod permits all to worship finely in their own houses. 562. PoUsh Ut The first critical history of Poknd is written by Cromer. 563. History. Busbequius is sent by Ferdinand to Constantinople, and describes the Ottoman Empire. 364. Geography. Eden's Decades of the New World, the first English account of recent discoveries. 365. Eng. Ch. Cranmer is induced to sign seven forms of riRKg recantation; but when brought to the s^e at Oxford, he ^ recants his recantations and stretches his right hand into the flames. Pole is consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury on the following day. 366. Italian Ch. Philip Neri commences meetings at his house in Rome, for reading and discussion. The members undertake evening preaching in the City churches, and are created the order of the Oratory, 1575. 367. Church Hist. Loyola dies, and is succeeded as General by Lainez, who perfects the orgamzation of the Society and issues the Uonstitu- tious and the Dechuutions. 368. Eng. Ch. The Pope revokes Pole's legatine Commission [-^557 and summons him to Rome to answer to a charge of heresy. ^ Mary, however, declares that Pole shall remain legate, and the Pope gives way. The persecution continues, and Pole undertakes a Visitation of the Universities. 369. German Ch. The Venetian ambassador reports that only a tenth part of the Oerman nation remains Catholic. Frederick III., the new Elector Palatine, introduces Calvinism, which remains the established religion. 370. Hungarian Ch. The majority of the Hungarian clergy formally adopt Calvinism at the Synod of Czenger, the Confession rejecting Lutheranism and Unitarianism. 371. Church Hist. The Pope imprisons Morone on a charge of favour- ing Lutheran opinions. 372. Eng. Lit. In Tottel's Miscellany, the firat of English anthologies, appear the works of Wyatt and Surrey, who introduce the sonnet and blank verse firom Italian Literature. The Stationers' Comp^iv is incorporated. 373. Science. Record's Whetstone of Wit, the first English algebra, invents the sign =, etc., and explains how to extract a square root. 58 POLITICS [1668 255. England. Guise, who has been recalled from Italy after the ri 550 battle of St Qiientin, storms Calais and the outl3ring post of ■- Guisnes, and terminates the English occupation of 211 years. Though deeply chagrined by the loss of tiieir last foothold in France, the Engl^h people trust the Queen too little to aid in the prosecution of the war. Mary dies (Nov.), and her sister Elizabeth retains the Council, to which she adds Sir William Cecil. 256. Scotland. The Lords of the Congregation petition the Regent for concessions, but receive evasive replies. Their position, however, is greatly strengthened by the death of the Englisn Queen and by the return of Knox from Geueva. 257. France. Egmont routs a detachment of the French army at Gravelines, aided by the English fleet (July). Mary, Queen of Scots, marries Francis, the Dauphin, the Eing yielding to the pressure of the Guises. A secret treaty binds Mary to bring over her kingdom. 258. England. Philip offers marriage to Elizabeth (Jan.^, but rt 550 withdraws when Parliament meets and passes a new Act of '- Supremacy, imposing on officials or graduates an oath to acknowledge the Queen as Supreme Governor in all Spiritual things as Temporal, and restoring the election of Bishops by congS SSlire* 259. Scotland. The Regent forbids preaching, summons the dis- obedient clergy to Perth, and outlaws tnem for not appearing. Knox denounces 'idolatry,' and the churches and monasteries are sacked. Both parties advance to Perth, but a compromise is made reserving the controversies for Parliament. The rebels offer to marry Arran's son, a Protestant, to Elizabeth, to counterbalance the union of France and Scotland. Elizabeth refuses, but sends money. 260. France. At the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis, between France and Spain (April), Savoy and Piedmont are returned to the Duke of Savoy. Both sides restore their conquests, though the French keep Saluzzo, one of the gates of Italy, and Calais, and Philip marries the daughter of Henry II. The Treaty closes the 40 years' war, and leaves Spain supreme in Italy. On the accession of Francis II., power passes to his wife's uncles, the Guises, who are opposed by the Bourbons and Coligny. 261. Italy. The Fope deposes his nephews, whom he had raised to power on account of their support in his anti-Spanish policy. 262. Netherlands. Margaret^ sister of Philip, becomes Regent, and Granvelle her chief adviser. The States refuse supplies tiU the 4,000 troops left by Philip are removed. 263. Turkey. Turkey, the ally of France, is not included in the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis, and Philip attacks Algiers. 1659] CULTURE 69 574. Eng. Ch. The persecution is ended by the simultaneous m eeg death of the Queen and Pole, about 300 persons having suffered, L^^^^ chiefly in Bonner's Diocese of London, and in Canterbury and Norwich. Aconcio, an Italian refugee, introduces Unilarianism into England, and writes his ' Stratagems of Satan.' 375. Church Hist The Bull Gum ex Apostolatus Officio declares that heretical kings and bishops are ijp90 facto deposed, and incur sentence of death, and that the Pope judges all and can be judged by none. 576. Politics. Poynet, the dispossessed Bishop of Winchester, in his Political Power, and Goodman, the colleague of Knox at Geneva, in his How Superior Powers should be Obeyed, maintain the right and duty of the people, by the Law of Nature and of Grod, to resist and depose ungodly rulers. Enoz more directly attacks two reigning Queens in his Blast of the Trumpet against the monstrous Regiment of Women. 577. Geography. Zeno of Venice publishes a map of the northern seas. 878. Social. Tobacco is brought to Spain, whence it is sent to Paris by Nicot, the French ambassador. 879. Death. J. C. Scaliger. 880, Eng. Ch. The Act of Uniformity, exacting a fine for mkca absence from church and restoring the second Prayer-Book of '- Edward VI., with a few alterations, is passed after vigorous opposition in the Lords, and without consent of Convocation. All the Bishops, except Eitchin of Llandaff, and about 200 clergy are deprived Parker becomes Primate, and Commissioners are sent through the country with Injunctions dealing with images, celibacy, and ceremonial. 881, French Ch. The first Protestant Synod is held, under the presi- dency of Morel, and adopts a Confession, composed by Calvin, and a Presbyterian organisation. 882, Oerman Ch. Flacius edits a Church History, the Magdeburg Centuries, the first historical defence of Protestantism. Brenz defends Luther's theory of ubiquity against Melanchthon. 888, Itcdian Ch. The Index compiled irom the lists made at Louvain and by the Spanish Inquisition is issued at Rome. A revised edition is published by the Council of Trent, 1564, including a department ' donee corrigatur.' A Congregation of the Index is instituted, 1571. 88J^ Spanish Ch. Autos-da-fi^ are held at Valladolid and Seville, by which Luiheranism b almost eradicated. Carranza, Archbishop of Toledo, is imprisoned (for 17 years) for his theory of Justification, and the Illuminati are persecuted. 885, Church Hist Joasaph, Patriarch of Constantinople, makes enquiries about Protestantism, but leaves unanswered a letter of Melanchthon, enclosing the Confession of Augsburg. 886, French Lit. Amyot translates Plutarch. 60 POLITICS [1660 264. Scotland. At Cecirs entreaty, the Queen sends troops and n 5qq a fleet to Scotland. The joint forces besiege the French in Leith, ^ which surrenders after the death of the Regent, who has been deserted by nearhr all her counsellors, including Maitland. By a treaty at Edin- burgh, France ceases to govern Scotland, and acknowledges Elizabeth's title, though Francis refuses to ratify this stipulation, ami the govern- ment is vested in 12 nobles till Mary's retum.- 265. France. A conspiracy to rescue the King from the Guises at Amboise fails, but frightens them into promoting L'Hdpital, who grants liberty of private worship to Huguenots. The Guises, however, im- prison Cond^ ; but their plans are frustrated by the King's death and the regency of Catherine de Medici, who favours Goligny and the Politiques. 266. Netherlands. After a delay of thrice the stipulated period, the Spanish troops are recalled. The Council of State, including Orange and Egmont, is rendered powerless by the secret council of Granvelle, Berlayinont, and Vidius. Further discontent is aroused by the creation of 14 bishoprics and 3 archbishoprics. 267. Asia. Akbar quells a revolt of Bairam Elian and assumes power, and builds up an Empire from his new capital at Agra, conquering the Rajput kingdoms. Lower Bengal, Orissa, Gujerat, Kashmir, Ean&har, and Scinde, but failing to subdue the south. He divides the Empire into Provinces with Viceroys, abolishes the non-Mussulman poll-tax, and creates justice and police. His finance minister, Todar Mall, makes the first land survey, and imposes a land-tax. 268. Englland. Lady Catherine Grey, sister of Lady Jane, riKgi marries Hertford, son of the Protector Somerset, without the '- Queen's consent, and is thrown into the Tower. 269. Scotland. Mary arrives in Scotland by sea, Elizabeth refusing her a passage through England unless she renounces her claim to the English crown. She acknowledges the new Calvinistic establishment, but retains the Mass for her own use, and accepts her half-brother Murray and Maitland as ministers. The first Book of Discipline is rejected by Parliament. 270. France. The States-General meet at Orleans, and L'H6pItal appeals to all parties to support the throne and cease their bitter struggles. The Edict of Orleans attacks a number of legal and other abuses ; the Parliament of Paris, however, refuses to register it. Feeling grows more and more embittered, and L'Hdpital and the Queen Regent therefore summon men of moderate opinions from the Parliaments and the Privy Council to an assembly at St Germains. 271. Poland. Livonia, which threw off allegiance to the Teutonic knights, 1521, in fear of Russian aggression, surrenders itself to Poland, which retains it, despite the attacks of Sweden and Russia. The Grand Master keeps part of the province as Duke of Courland, under the suzerainty of Poland. 1561] CULTUBE 61 587. Eng. Ch. The ' Breeches/ or Geneva, Bible, with Calvin- q^^q istio annotations, remains the most popular edition till 1611. ^ 588. Etcotch Ch* At the request of ^Parliament, Enoz and five other ministers draw up a Confession, which is approved. The authority of tlie Pope is rejected, the mass is abolished, and all laws against Pro- testantism are repealed. The first General Assembly meets (Dec.), and approves the First Book of Discipline (compiled by the authora of the Confession), adoptingin part the system of Geneva. 589. Oerman Cn. Flacius declares that original sin is not accidental but substantial, and is accused of Manichaeism. 590. Asiatio Ch. Akbar, with the aid of his minister, Abul-Fazl, constructs an eclectic Mohammedanism, and grants religious liberty throughout India. 391. &ience. Battista Portals Magia Naturalis discusses the structure of the eye, and invents the Camera obscura. He also founds the Academia Secretorum Naturae at Naples, the first scientific society. Eustachius describes the tube running between the mouth and the ear. 892, Art. Tintoretto begins to fresco the Scuola di San Rocco, Venice. Germain Pilon's Three Graces (Louvre). Jean Goujon's Diana and a Stag (Louvre). 393. Philology. Sigonius b^ins to study Boman law and customs. 394, Beaths. Doria, Lasco, Melanchthon. 395. Eng. Ch. The Queen is dissuaded by Cecil from issuing an ri 53]^ ordinance against the marriage of the clergy, but forbids mem- ^ bera of colleges or cathedral cnurches to marry or to retain their wives. 396. French Ch. At a Conference at Poissy (Aug.), Beza confesses his dissent from ten of the Articles of Augsburg, including that relating to the Real Presence. Marlorat's N. T. Expositio, a popular Calvinist commentary. 397. German Ch. The Protestant Princes adopt the revised Con- fession of Augsburg of 1540, and the Apologia of tne earlier edition. 398. Netherlands Ch. The Belgic Confession is drawn up by Guide de Bres, a Calvinist. The Genevese CSiurch system is introauced, 1563. 399. Literature. J. C. Scaliger's Poetics, the first modern work of literary criticism and analysis. JIfiO. Edncation. The Merchant Taylors' School in London is founded. 401. Social. Sandwich is licensed to receive 400 Flemish refugees as clothworkers. Colchester, Norwich, and other towns quickly follow suit. J^. Death. Schwenckfeld. 62 POLITICS [1662 272. England. The Oath of Supremacy is imposed on the riRAo members of the House of Commons, Catholics being thus ex- ^ eluded. 273. Ireland. After a yisit to London, on the invitation of the Queen, Shane O'Neill rebels a second time, and, after five years' struggle, is murdered. 274. France. The Edict of January, promulgated by the Assembly of St Oermains, formally authorises Protestantism, though enjoining respect for the ancient worship. To oppose the policy of toleration, a league is formed by the Ouises and Montmorency, which the King of Navarre is persuaded to join. The massacre by tne followers of the Duke of Guise of a congregation at worship in Vassy leads to the first of the long series of religious wars. The Huguenots receive aid from the Oerman Princes, and the Catholics obtain support from Spain and Switzerland. The Huguenots prove successful at tne outset, and the King of Navarre is killed, his son of ten, Henry, becoming head of the Bour^ns. Cond^ and Montmorency, the rival commanders, are taken prisoners at Dreux (Nov.), Coligny becoming leader of the Hu^enots. The Huguenots obtain the aid of Elizabeth by offering her Havre, which she hopes to exchange for Calais. ^ 275. Austria. Maximilian is elected King of the Romans. 276. America. Bibault establishes a colony of Huguenots in Florida, at the instance of Coligny, and leaves a number of settlers, who volunteer to hold the country for the King of France till Bibault returns with recruits and supplies. 277. En^and. Arthur and Edmond Pole, the last of the nKoo Yorkists, are convicted of treason and imprisoned till their ■- death. 278. France. The murder of the Duke of Guise (Feb.), when advancing . against Orleans, terminates the war, though Coligny is anxious for ite continuance. The peace made at Amboise (March; tolerates the Be- formed faith where established before the war (except in Paris), and a town in every district is selected for Huguenot worship. War is declared against England, and Havre is recaptured. Three years of peace ensue, the Edict of Amboise, however, only being executed where the Huguenots are strong. 279. Oermany. The ckims of the Elector of Brandenburg and his heirs to the succession of the Duchy of Prussia are recognised by the King of Poland. 280. AMca. A Spanish fleet is destroyed by a storm, but Oran is successfully defended against the Turks. 281. Englland. Elizabeth is compelled to make peace with rieo^ France, without recovering Calais. ^ 282. AxiBtria. On the death of Ferdinand, the Imperial title, with Austria, Bohemia and Hungary, passes to Maximilian Ll., the remaining provinces being divided among his two younger sons. 1564] CULTURE 63 40$. Eng. Ch. Jewel's Apology for the Church of Endand. qr^a JffiJ^ German Ch. ^ Chemnitz criticises Catholic theology in his ^ Examen Consilii Tridentini. The Elector Palatine, Frederick III., the first Calvinist prince in Oermany, orders Ursinus and Olevianus to compose the Heidelberg Catechinn, the most popular of Calyinistic symbols. Jif)5, Spanish Ch. Theresa founds a convent of barefooted Carmelites in her birthplace, Avila. She is aided by John of the (>06S, who extends the reform to the male Carmelites. Jifie. Chnroh Hist The Council of Trent meets for the third time, under the presidency of Hosius and four other legates. The concession of the cup to the laaty, demanded by Glermany and France, is defeated by Lainez and the Spaniards. The Cardinal of Lorraine arriyes with the French bishops (Sept), and takes the anti-papal side in the dis- cussion of the divme origin of Episcopal^. 407. Art Paul Veronese's ' Marriage of Cana' (LouvreV JiOS. Social. John Hawkins makes the first Englisn slave-trading expedition from Guinea to the Spanish Indies. 409. Death. Laelius Socinus. 410. Eng. Ch. The 42 Articles are reduced to 39, accepted by qr^o Convocation, and ratified by the Queen with a few alterations. ^ Foxe's Book of Martyrs. 411. Chnroh Hist The Emperor is won over to terminating the Council by the Pope's promise of the cup to the laity. Reforms are rapidly resolved on in reference to clerical seminaries, the discipline of Ourdinals and bishops and the visitation of chapters, and the theory of purgatory, indulgences and the invocation of samts is defined. 412. Eng. Lit Sackville's Induction to the Mirror for Madstrates. 41S. Art. Philip commissions Herrera to build the Escuriai. 414 Social. The Statute of Apprentices empowers Justices of the Peace to periodically settle the rate of wages. The number of appren- tices is laid down in relation to the number of journeymen and the status of the master. 4I6. Church Hist. The Pope confirms the acts of the recent n 554 Council, the disciplinary decrees being accepted \ty several *■ German princes, Italy, Poland, Portugal, and the Spanish Empire, and rejected oy Hungary and France, though certain of the reforms are quietly adopted. The Professio Fidei Tridentinae defines the theory of the Sacraments, Purgatory and Indukences. 416. German Ch. Asked by the new Emi)eror for his opinion on the decrees, Cassander recommends the permission of the cup to the laity and of marriage of the clei]gy. 417. Bohemian Ch. Owing to the concession by the Pope of the cup to the laity, the Utraquists become merged in the Catholic Church. 64 POLITICS [1664 283. Netherlands.^ On the demand of the Nationalists and of the Recent, Granyelle is recalled. Philip, however, refuses to change his pohcy, and enforces still more strictly the edicts against heresy. 284. Asia. The Philippines are occupied by the Spaniards, and Manila is built. 285. Scotland. After contemplating various foreign matches ncAc and rejecting Elizabeth's offer of Leicester, Mary marries her ^ cousin, Darmey, a Catholic. Regarding this as a defiance, Elizabeth urges the Scottish malcontents, led by Murray, to a revolt, which is easily crushed, and in consequence is (usowned by Elizabeth. 286. France. Catherine meets Alva at Bayonne, but refuses to change her system of compromise. 287. Switzerland. The Catholic cantons aUy with the Pope, Spain and Savoy, though without taking overt action. 288. Netherlanos. The nobles despatch Egmont to Philip to demand concessions. The King makes some vague promises, and loads the ambassador with gifts and honours. 289. Turkey. The Knights of St John in Malta, under I^valette, sustain a siege by the Turks, and, after three months, are relieved by Spanish troops from Sicily. 290. America. Menendez is sent by Philip, who fears the loss of his Mexican fleets, to Florida to destroy the Huguenot colony. 291. En^and. The Commons resolve to petition the Queen to ricAQ marry, but are ordered to leave the matter alone. Paul Went- ^ worth asks if such a command is not contrary to their privileges. 292. Scotland. Damley and the Protestant nobles murder Kizzio, the unofficial Foreign Secretary of the Queen. 293. Germany. The Elector Palatine successfully defends his adoption of Calvinism before the Diet of Augsburg. 294. Netherlands. St Aldegonde, Brederode and William's brother, Louis of Nassau, form a lea^e, in which a number of Catholics join, called the Compromise, to resist the Inquisition, and present a request to the Regent. Berlaymont urges her not to fear the * beggars ' (a name that the nationalists at once adopt), and the Regent signs a Modera- tion, making trifling concessions. She refuses to follow the advice of Orange in the Council and to summon the States-General, till, frightened by an attack on the churches, she issues the Accord, abolishing the In(][uisition and granting an amnesty, secretly protestiug to Philip that it IS obtained by force. Acting on orders from Spam, she captures several towns, and re-establishes the Inquisition, William withdrawing from the countrv. 295. Turkey. The Turks capture Chios, the last Genoese possession in the Levant. The decline of the Ottoman Power, however, begins with the death of Solyman, and the Janissaries become an hereditary caste. 1666] CULTURE. 65 At the same time the Bohemian Brothers, under the leadership of Blahoday, obtain toleration from the Emperor. 418. Swiss eh. Beza succeeds to Calvin s position as the head of the Galvinist Churches. 4ig, Art. Delorme designs the Tuileries for Catherine de Medici. 420. Social. Wierus, a pupil of A^ppa, attacks the belief in witch- craft, which is defended about this time by Bodin, Eraatus and Delrio. 421. Deaths. Calvin, Lainez, Michelangelo, Vesalius. 422, French Ch. The first contest takes place between the \\fM Universi^ of Paris, represented by Pasquier, and the Jesuit '■ collie, funded by the Bishon of Clermont. 423, Spanish Ch. Francis Borgia, Viceroy of Catalonia, becomes General of the Jesuits, and greatly extends the Order in Spain. 424, Polish Ch. The Unitarians are excluded from the synods of the Reformed Church. 425, Italian Lit. Cinthio's Hecatomithi, a collection of tales. 4^. Art. Palestrina's Missa Papae Marcelli rescues music from the suspicions of the Counter-Reformation. 427, Philosophy. Telesio's De Rerum Natura, a system of mystical pantheism, influenced by Paracelsus and Cardan. 428. Death. Gesner. 42^, Eng. Ch. Parker's Advertisements (issued without the riRQo imprimatur of the Queen), supplement the Injunctions of 1559 '- and declare the minimum of ntual. The appended declaration of con- formity is refused by about 40 London clergy, who are suspended or deprived. The malcontents begin to organise meetings, out their separation from the Church is condemned by Ejiox, Beza, and Bullinger. 420, Swiss Ch. BuUinger's Confessio Helvetica Posterior, blending Calvinism with Zwinglianism, gradually wins recognition throughout Switzerland. 431, Church Hist. The Catechismus Romanus, planned by the Council of Trent and based on its decrees, becomes the favourite manu^ of teachers, though disapproved by the Jesuits. The Cate- chismus Parvus of Canisius is also widely adopted. 432, French Lit. Henry Stephanus replies to the criticisms of Herodotus in his Apologie pour Herodote, in which he attacks the morals and credulity of the Roman clergy. 433. Art. Colins completes the reliefs on we tomb of Maximilian I. at Innsbruck. 434. History. Bodin's Methodus ad Historiarum Cognitionem discusses the laws of prc^ess and causation. 435- Social. The Royal Exchange is founded by Gresham. 436, Death. Las Casasw Q. 5 66 POLITICS. [1667 296. Scotiand. Damley^ is murdered by Bothwell (Feb.), who r^ggy trapjs the nobles into siting a bond at Aiuslie's Tayern, de- ^ daring his innocence and urging the Queen to marry him. The marriage ta^es place (May), but her subjects rise against her and capture her at Carberry Hill. She is imprisoned on Loch Leven, and is forced to abdicate in favour of her infant son, who is placed in Protestant hands, and for whom Murr^ becomes Begent. 297. France. The Huguenots plan to seize the King at Meaux, but the Court escapes to Paris, which Oond^ besieges, and a drawn battle is fought at St Denis. 298. Netherlands. Philip sends Alva to aid Margaret, who shortly retires. Egmont and Horn are arrested, and the Council of Disorders (the ' Council of Blood ') is instituted. 299. Asia. Nobunaga becomes supreme in Japan, deposes the Shogun, centralises the government, encourages Christian missions, and maintains peaca 300. Scotland. Mary escapes (May), is defeated by Murray at r, ggo Langside, and flies to England, demanding an army to replace L-"^^**** her. Elizabeth appoints Commissioners, who pronounce the Casket Letters produced by Murray authentic. Though refusing to recog- nise her deposition, the Queen detains Mary in England. 301. France. The Treaty of Longjumeau confirms the settlement of Amboise. The Pope, however, releases the Queen from her obligations. Cardinal Guise returns. L'Hdpital is dismissed, the reformed service is forbidden, Cond^ and Coligny leave Paris, and war again breaks out 302. Spain. Owing to the enforcement of the laws against Moorish customs and language, the Moors revolt, but are crushed by Don John, the half-brother of Philip. 303. Netherlands. William formally joins the Reformed Church, and collects an army, part of which defeats the Spaniards at Heiligerlee. Alva executes Egmont and Horn, and defeats Louis at Jemmingen. 304. En^and. The northern nobles conspire to marry Norfolk r, r^q to Mary Stuart. Norfolk is imprisoned on suspicion, and L^^®^ Northumberland and Westmoreland openly revolt (Nov.), but flee before the army sent against them. 305. Prance. The Huguenots are routed and Cond^ slain at Jamac (March). Coligny becomes leader, but is defeated at Montcontour (Oct.). 306. Netherlands. Alva's financial policy ruins manufactures and commerce. 307. Poland. Sigismund XL unites Lithuania (loosely connected since 1386) to Poland by the Treaty of Lublin. 1569] CULTURE. 67 4^j. Eng. Ch. The Queen orders the Ecclesiastical Commis- ricAv sioners to break up the Nonconformist congregations in Londfon. '- 100 sectaries are seized at Plumber's Hall, Lonaon, which had been hired under pretence of a wedding, and imprisoned. A centre of propi^anda, however, is instituted at Wandsworth ; but separation from the Qiurch rarely occurs outside the London district. 4S8, Scotch Ch. Lay patronage is adopted. 4^g, Italian Ch. Gamesecchi is surrendered by the Duke of Tuscany and burnt at Rome, Paleario suffering, 1568. Their deaths mark the close of the Protestant movement in Italy. 440, Netherlands Ch. Baius, Professor of Theology at Louvain, who has been condemned by the Sorbonne, 1560, is censured by the Pope, at the instance of the Franciscans, for his teaching in regard to Predestina- tion and Grace. He submits, but his ideas remain in circulation and are appropriated by Jansen in the succeeding generation. 441. Education. Rugby School is founded by Laurence Sheriff. 442, Eng. Ch. The ' Bishops' Bible,' revised by Parker and his ri 500 suffragans, is authorised, and forms the base of the translation of >- 1611. William Allen, sometime Fellow of Oriel, founds a college in the University of Douai for English Catholics, especially for those desiring to work for the conversion of England. Similfu* institutions are created at Bome and Valladolid. 442. Netherlands Ch. Mamix de Ste Aldegonde composes the Wilhelmuslied, which takes its place as a national anthem. 444. Bohemian Ch. Blahoslav translates the Bible, adds com- mentaries, and composes hymns, his writings exercising a profound influence over the Bohemian Brethren. 44^. Polish Ch. The Unitarians of Transylvania separate from the Protestants. 446, Church Hist. Pius Y. issues the Breviarium Bomanum, revised by order of the Council of Trent. 44y. Philosophy. Soto's De Justitia et Jure, the first ethical work of the century, attempts to combine the conceptions of Boman and Canon Law. 448. Economics. Bodin explains the revolution in prices, returning to the public revenues, in the R^publique. 44g, Death. Ascham. 4K0, Netherlands Ch. Mamix' Beehive violently satirises the n rho Catholic Church. L^^^® 4^1. Science. Mercator's hydrographical Chart introduces the new projection by crossing parallels and meridians at right angles. His atlas appears 1598. 4^2, Philosophy. Montaigne translates the Theologia Naturalis of Baymond de Sebonde into French, and composes an Apology for the author. 5—2 68 POLITICS. [1670 308. Ei^jgland. The Pope excommunicates Elizabeth and absolves ri r^q her subjects from their allegiance. The bull is affixed to the ^ door of the Bishop of London's house. 309. Scotland. Murray is murdered by the Hamiltons. Mary's sup- porters again come forward and resist the new Regent, Lennox, and confusion ensues till Morton obtains the regency, 1572. 310. France. The success of the Catholic arms leads to a reaction against the Guises and the Spanish party, and to the Treaty of St Germain (Aug.), which grants religious freedom to the Huguenots. The young King, Charles IX., assumes power, and deserts the religious system of the Counter-Reformation, offering his brother Anjou to Elizabeth and welcoming Louis of Nassau at Court. Margaret, the sister of the King, is betrothed to Henry of Navarre, and Coligny's influence becomes supreme. 311. Sweden. Denmark recognises the independence of Sweden, con- Arming the treaty of Bromsebro (1541), at the peace of Stettin, and Sweden surrenders her claim to Norway. 312. Turkey. Ovprus, bequeathed to Venice by Caterina Comaro, 1489, is attacked by the Turks, and the chief towns are taken and destroyed. 313. Africa. The Turks capture Tunis from Spain. 314. England. Strickland is excluded from the House of Com- riKtn mons by the Queen for proposing to amend the Prayer-book. ^ To avoia a quarrel, Elizabeth allows him to return, the question of the Prayer-book being dropped. An Italian banker, resident in England, Ridolfi, informs Alva that the peers desire him to send a Spanish army of 6,000 soldiers, murder the Queen and set Maiy and Norfolk, who has been released from the Tower, on the throne. The scheme, which is approved by Philip, is discovered by Burleigh, diplomatic relations with Spain are broken off (till 1578), and Norfolk is imprisoned. Parliament declares traitors all who introduce Bulls, who are reconciled to Rome or reconcile others. 315. Turkey. The Pope arranges a Holy League with Spain and Venice against the Turks, whose fleet is destroyed at Lepanto by Don John (Oct.). The victory is rendered useless by the jealousies of the Powers. 316. Hungary. The Zapolya d3masty in Transylvania ends, and Stephen Bathory is elected. 317. En^and. The Queen executes Norfolk, but refrises the rieno demand of Parliament for the death of Mary Stuart. In her L-^^'^ anxiety to find support ajgainst Spain, she resumes negociations for a French marriage, this time with Alen9on, Anjou's brother, a youth 21 years younger than herself, and makes a defensive alliance with France at Blois. 1672] CULTURE. 69 453, Eng. Ch. Gartwright is deprived of the Lady Margaret n57Q Professorship for Puritanism, largely owing to Whitgift, Master ^ of Trinity. 454, Oemiaxi Ch. Fischart, a Calvinist, begins his career of Protestant champion, translates Dutch and Huguenot polemics, and attacks the Jesuits. The introduction of presbjrteries into the Palatinate is attacked by Erastus, a professor at Heidelberg, who contends for state control. 455, Polish C5h. By the consensus of Sendomir, on the lines of Melanchthon's later ideas, the Galvinists, Lutherans and Bohemian Brothers are united. At the same moment, the Jesuits enter the kingdom. 456, Chnroh Hist. Pius V. issues the Missale Bomanum, ordered by the Council of Trent. 457' Science. Ortelius' (of Antwerp) Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, the first modem atlas. 4S8, Art. Palladio's Treatise on Architecture. 4Sg, Education. Ascham's Schoolmaster recommends, for the learning of Latin, the study of a model book in preference to a long preliminary course of grammar. In consequence of the support given to Gartwright by the younger Masters of Arts, the Mizabeuian Statutes are enacted, vesting the administration of the University in the Caput or Heads of Houses. 460. Eng. Ch. Subscription to the XXXIX Articles is enforced 1^571 by Parliament on the clergy, and the Canon Law compiled under ^ Henry and Edward finalfy disappears. 461. Philosophy. Patrizzi's Dissertationes Peripateticae strongly attacks Aristotle, and urges the recognition of the Platonists oy the ChurcL 462. Politics. Oentillet's Anti-Machiavel, the first important attack from the Protestant side. 463. Education. Harrow School is founded by John Lyon. 464. Oeography. Jenkinson carries a letter from Elizabeth to the Shah of Persia, travelling through Russia and Bokhara. 46s. Law. Plowden's Reports. 466. Death. Cellini. 467, Eng. Ch. Cartwright and his followers draw up the First n 590 and Second Admonition to Parliament, denouncing Anglican '- ceremonial, above all the use of vestments. Whitgift replies, and a long controversy benns. Sanders attacks &e English Reformation in his De Visibili Monarchia. 70 POLITICS. [1672 318. France. Catherine plots with Anjou to mnrder Coligny, who is wounded but not killed. At this moment, Henry of Navarre's marriage with the King's sister brings many Huguenots unarmed to Paris, and the King is persuaded by his mother and the Guises to order a massacre, which begins with the murder of Goligny on St Bartholomew's Day (Aug. 24), and is repeated in the provinces. The news of the massacre, in imich many thousands lose their lives, is warmly welcomed by Philip and the Pope, who strikes a medal in honour of the event. A few Protestants find refuge at the Court of Ren^ of Ferrara, at Montaigis. Henry of Navarre is spftred on condition that he attends Mass. 319. Netiierlands. The Dutch exiles and refugees, known as 'sea beggars,' capture Brill, and hold it in the name of Orange. Troops sent by Alva to recapture it are repulsed, and the foundations of an inde- pendent Netherlands are laid. Holland, Zealand, Friesland and Utrecht acknowledge William of Orange as Stadtholder. The Flemish towns, however, in part owing to the massacre of St Bartholomew, return to their allegiance. 320. Poland. Sigismund, the last of the Jagellons, who have reigned since 1386, dies, and the Estates declare the Crown elective. An Austrian Archduke claims the throne, which, however, is secured for the Duke of Anjou by the French ambassador. 321. Scotland. Elizabeth sends aid to the party of the young neno King, and captures Edinburgh, in wliich Maitland and Eirkaldy, ^ who joined Mary's party after her flight, have held out Maitland dies^ and Mary's party ceases to exist. 322. Ireland. The revolt of the Desmonds and the nobles of Munster, led by James Fitzmaurice, 1569 — 73, in part owing to the threat of Plantations, is crushed. 323. France. Peace is made with the Huguenots, partly owing to the growth of the party of the Politiques, led by the Montpensiers. Pto- testant worship is permitted in four towns. 324. Netherlands. Haarlem is taken, but Alkmaar holds out, and Alva's petition for his recall is granted. English aid is for the first time secretly sent. 325. Poland. Anjou becomes King of Poland, promising not to mairy nor make war without consent of Parliament, and recognising the right of the nobles to resist him if he breaks the pact. 326. Turkey. Cyprus is surrendered by Venice to the Porte after three years' war, and a large indemnity is paid. 327. Netherlands. Requesens succeeds Alva and defeats and 1-1574 kills Louis of Nassau at Mooker Heath. Leyden, however, is ^ gallantly defended, and is relieved by cutting the dykes and flooding the country (Oct^. The Constitution of Holland is drawn up, and William becomes Commander-in-Chief and Dictator. 1674] CULTURE. 71 468, Scotch Ch. MortoD appoints the so-called Tulchan Bishops, who pass on their fees to the nobles, perfonn no duties, and are subject to the General Assembly 460. GerzxLan Ch. Weigel, a mystical Saxon pastor, is denounced as a neretic. 4yo, Spanish Ch. Luis de Leon is imprisoned for his views on biblical criticism. 4Yi. Eng. Lit. Parker founds the Society of Antiquaries, for the study and preservation of manuscripts, llie Society is dissolved by James I, but is revived 1717. 4*12. Portagaese Lit. The Lusiads of Camoens, who has resided in the East 16 years, describes the heroic age of Portuguese conquest in the East, and b^mes the national epic. ^7j. Science. Bombelli improves the notation of algebra. 4*14. Philology. Stephanus Thesaurus Linguae Graecae. ^75. History. Buchanan's Detection relates the life of Mary Stuart 4^6, Social. Justices of the Peace are empowered to assess for the relief of the poor, to house them, and to appoint overseers. 4JJ. Deaths. Knox, Goujon, Bamus. [1673 4j8. Eng. Ch. In consequence of Cartwright's attack, the Queen appoints Commissioners to compel suspected clergy to approve tne Articles and Prayer-book and sign a recantation. 4jg, Church Hist. Crusius and Andreae, Pro^ssors at Tubingen, open negotiations for union with the Greek Church, which are terminated by the condemnation of the Confession of Augsburg. 480, Italian Lit. Tasso's Aminta founds Italian pastoral drama. 481, Philosophy. Taurellus attacks the philosophy of Aristotle. 482, Politics. The anonymous De Jure Magistratuum reveals the more extreme ideas adopted by the Huguenots in consequence of the massacre of St Bartholomew. 483, Agricnltore. Tusser's 500 points of Husbandry strongly recom- mends the enclosing of land and convertible husbandry. 484, Death. L'H6pitaL 485. Eng. Ch. ^ Cartwright translates Travers' Presbyterian wfnA Doctrina Ecclesiae. ^ 486. German Ch. The Elector of Saxony banishes the Crypto- Calvinists. 487. Asiatic Ch. Tuisi Das' Wanderings of Rama. 488. Art. The Gate of Honour at Caius College, Cambridge, the first completely classical design in England. Longleat, erectea about the same time, shows that the ' Elizabethan ' style of Penshurst, Haddon and Enowle is 3rielding to Italian influences. 72 POLiTica [1574 328. Poland. Henry secretly leaves Poland on the death of his brother, and Stephen Bathory, of Iransylvania, who has married a Jagellon, succeeds. He repels the attacks of Ivan the Terrible, organises the Cossacks, and, tliough probably a Protestant, allows a free hand to the Jesuits. 329. Turkey. John the Terrible, prince of Moldavia, attacks the Turks and is killed. His army is annihilated and the country devastated. 330. Africa. The Portuguese, under Paulo Diaz, colonise Angola and found the city of San Paulo. 831. En^ancL Elizabeth visits Leicester at Kenilworth. [1575 332. France. On the arrival of the new King, the strife of *- parties recommences, Alen^on, Cond6 and Henry of Navarre join the rolitiques, and John Casimir, brother of the Elector Palatine, advances with iTOops. The alliance is broken up by promising further concessions to the Uu^enots and the summoning of the States-General, and by giving the duchy of Anjou to Alencon. 333. Netherlands. The states of Holland and Zealand are united, and the crown is offered to and refused by Elizabeth. 834. En^and. Peter Wentworth attacks the Queen's inter- nMo ference with free debate, and is committed to the Tower by the ^ Commons. 335. France. By the truce of Monsieur (May), Huguenot worship is allowed, except in Paris. This leniency leads to the formation of a League by Ouise, which undertakes to obey the King if he obeys the Estates. The States-General, however, which meet at Blois (Dec), despite the efforts of the Politiques, Bodin and Basmaison, attack the Huguenots. 336. Netherlands. Requesens dies, and the unpaid troops mutiny and sack Antwerp (* The Spanish Fury ') and other cities. These out- rages induce the provinces to unite in the Pacification of Ghent (Nov.), by which they recognise Philip, but agree to expel the troops, secure toleration and convene a federal assemUy. The Archduke Matthias is invited to be Governor. 337. Austria. The new Emperor, Rudolf H., devotes himself chiefly to astrolo^ and alchemy, and by his patronage of the Jesuits initiates the Gathohc reaction in Austria. 338. Asia. The head Lama of the chief monastery of Lhassa is made Grand Lama of Tibet. 339. England. Drake sets out in the Pelican to attack Spanish r-i enn shipping and treasure in the Pacific, and returns home via the L^*^'' Cape of Qood Hope, 1580, being the first commander to make the circuit of the world. 1677] CULTURE. 78 Miniature painting in England begins with Billiard and the Olivers. 48^. Politics. Hotman's Franco-GaUia argues, on historical grounds, m favour of the rights of the people in the election and deposition of Kings. The Reveille-Matin des Frangais, however, fiercely de- nouncing the royal house and authorising regicide, is disowned by the Huguenots. 4^, SociaL Beginald Scot explains the cultivation of hops. 4^1, Eng. Ch. Dutch Anabaptists are burned in Smithfield. ri 575 4g2. Bohemian Ch. The Second Bohemian Confession, based ^ on the Augsbui]^ and the First Bohemian Confession, is drawn up by Lutherans, Calviniste, Utraquists, and Bohemian Brethren. 4g3, Science. An observatory is constructed for Tycho Brahe by the King of Denmark. 4^4. liconomics. Calvin's Lett'Or on Usury hastens the reaction against mediaeval economic conceptions. ^P5. Education. Leyden University is founded to commemorate the siege. 4g6, Philology. Lipsius' edition of Tacitus. 4yi. Deaths. Bullinger, Parker. 4g8. Eng. Ch. Elizabeth orders the suppression of the Froi)he- ri 570 syings, or meetings of clergy and laity for theological discussion, ^ liegun about 1571. Archbishop Orindal, however, who favours them as a training-ground for preachers, refuses. 4QQ. German Ch. The Tor^au Book, a Confession of 12 Articles, is drawn up by Andreae, Chemnitz and other Lutherans, and is submitted to all Lutheran princes for revision. ^00. Italian Ch. Archbishop Borromeo combats the plague in Milan. ^01, Eng. Lit. Gascoyne's Steel Glass, a social satire. ^02. Gennan Lit. Frischlin's Rebecca, based on the classical comedy. ^02, Politics. La Bo^tie's Contre-Un, written about 1548, from the standpoint of extreme individualism. ^04, Education. Duke Julius of Brunswick founds Helmstadt Uni- versity. ^05. Geography. Frobisher's first voyage, the earliest exploration of the North- West, sights part of Labrador and Frobisher's Strait. ^06. Deaths. Cardan, l^tian. ^07. Eng. Ch. Grindal reproves the Queen for her overbearing ri 5»» interference in Church matters, and is suspended. The Prophe- ^ syings are suppressed by the Bishops, though most of them believe in their utility. De8j>ite his suspension, the Archbishop is allowed to continue his visitation and to consecrate Bishops. 74 POLITICS. [1677 340. France. The Huguenots take up arms ; but the war is quickly ended by the treaty of Bergerac, whicn cedes a town in each district, nine strongholds, and seats m certain provincial Parliaments. Worship is allowed to continue where held at the time of the treaty. France enjoys comparative peace for seven years. 341. Netherlands. The new Viceroy, Don John, finds himself com- pelled to grant the Perpetual Edict, and to confirm the Pacification of Ghent and promise the removal of the troops, with which he hopes to invade England. William suspects Don John's good faith, and refuses to recognise the Edict. 842. Aiutria. The Hungarian Serbs receive districts from the Emperor as military colonists. In 1606 they are definitely merged in the Austrian dominions. 343. Afirica. The first English Ambassador is sent to Morocco, with which the Barbaiy Merchants, incorporated 1585, trade. 344. England. Elizabeth abrogates the si>ecial privileges of the n 570 Hansards in retaliation for their expulsion of the Merchant ^ Adventurers from Hamburg. 345. Netherlands. Don John defeats Matthias at Gtemblours (Jan.), but is not supported by Philip, who disapproves his scheme of invading England and marrying Mary otuart, and orders Antonio Perez to murder Es^vedo, his agent in Madrid. Don John dies broken-hearted, and is succeeded by ^exander Famese of Parma. Holland adopts the Excise. 346. Sweden. John HI., son of Oustavus, secretly becomes a Catholic, owing to his Catholic wife, and to the Jesuit, Possevino, and perhaps to the prospect of the Polish throne. 347. Afnca. A defeated usurper of Morocco appeals to Sebastian, King of Portugal, who invades Morocco and is slain at Alkazar, his army being annihilated. About the same time Portuguese and Christian influence at the mouth of the Congo come to an end. 348. Portngal. Cardinal Henry, aged 67, becomes King. 349. America. Gilbert's attempt to settle in North America fails. 350. En^and. The Duke of Anjou visits Elizabeth, and a HMg treaty of marriage is signed. The project is strongly attacked >- by Sir Philip Sioney, who has to retire nrom Court, and by Stubbe, who loses his rignt hand. The Eastland Company is chartered to trade with the Baltic states. 351. Scotland. Esmd Stuart, a Catholic cousin of the King, arrives in Scotland, and wins his favour. 352. Ireland. The Desmond revolt breaks out again. Sir James Fitic- maurice being joined by mercenaries, sent by the Pope under Stukely and Saunders, at Smerwick, which is stormed by Lord Grey, the Deputy, who massacres the prisoners. In consequence, the Earl of Desmond himself takes the lead, the rebellion continuing till his death, 1583, 1679] CULTURE. 75 Guthbert Mayne suffers, under the Act of 1571, for maintaining that Catholics should assist a foreign force to reduce England to the obedience of the Pope. So8. German Ch. Andreae, Chemnitz, Chvtraeus and others compose the Formula of Concord, on the basis of the Torgau Book, api)roying a modified form of Brenz' theory of ubiquity, and entirely rejecting sjmergism. /op. Cliarcli Hist. Medina, a Dominican, founds Probabilism, author- ising conduct allowed by a sinde doctor, which, though attacked by Belmrmine, is elaborated by ToTetus, Suarez, and many others. Sio, Scotch Lit. "JTie Admirable' Orichton leaves Scotland for France and Italy, where he distinguishes himself in a series of scholastic discussions. ^n, French Lit. D'Aubign^ begins his Tragiques, an invective against Catholics. SI2, PoliticB. Bodin's La R^publique, the first modem discussion of the principles and forms of Qovemment. j/j. Iiaw. Cujas' Commentaries on Boman Law are collected. §14, Scotch Ch. The Second Book of Discipline, embodying n 573 the ideas of Melville, and adopted by the General Assembly, '- transfers authority and discipline to the Kirk Session, the Presbjrtery, the Provincial Sjmod, and the General Assembly. The Presb3rtery, consisting of the ministers of the district and an elder firom each con- gregation, controls the Eirk Session, examines candidates, ordains and deposes ministers, and becomes the mainspring of the system. 57-5. Church Hiist. The English college is moved from Douai to Bheims, owing to the hostility of the Calvinists of the Low Countries to partisans of Spain. (The collie is restored to Douai, 1593.) jzo. French Lit. Du Bartas La Semaine, a didactic poem on the Creation, the first French Christian epic. In its translation by Sylvester, it becomes very popular in England. 5^7. Polieh Lit. Eochanowski writes the Despatch of the Greek Ambassadors, the first regular Polish drama, and his Lamentations, the first Polish lyrical poetry. S18. Death. Sachs. $ig. Polish Ch. Faustus Socinus settles in Poland, where he ^^579 attempts to unite the Anti-lVinitarians. ^ ^20, Swiss Ch. Carlo Borromeo founds the Collegium Helveticum at Milan for missionaries to Switeerland. ^21. Eng. Lit. Spenser's Shepherd's Calendar. Lyl/s Euphues, a fantasy dealing with education, written in a style modelled on Guevara's Mirror for Pnnces, influences English literature for half a century. With Greene and Lodge, Lyly founds the novel of manners. North's translation of Plutarch's Lives. 76 POLITICS. [1679 leaving Munster a desert. The confiscations are granted to ' Under- takers/ such as Raleigh and Hatton. 353. Germany. Albert of Bavaria is succeeded by William, a devoted adherent of the Jesuits, who makes the country the head-quarters of the Catholic reaction. 354. Netherlands. Owing to the religious differences between the northern and southern provinces, which Parma fosters, William finds it impossible to maintain the Pacification of Ghent, and founds the Dutch Republic by the Union of Utrecht (Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Gelder- land, Friesland, Groningen, Overyssel), Philip's authority being nomi- nally retained. 355. En^and. Campion and Parsons lead a Jesuit mission to n 539 the conversion of England, and explain that nobody need act on ^ the Bull of Disposition till opportunity arises. The first royal Proclamation is issued against the growth of London. 356. Scotland. Mary Stuart informs Phibp that she places herself in his hands. 357. France. An insult to the wife of Henry of Navarre leads to a short war. The Huguenots are worsted; and the Peace of Fleix renews the terms of Ber^erac. Guise now allies with Spain. 358. Netherlands. Philip issues a Ban against WiUiam, who replies in an Apology, defending his past conduct and present attitude. 359. Portagal. On the death of King Henry, Philip, as grandson of Emmanuel the Fortunate, enters Portugal and quickly defeats by land and sea the rival candidate, Antonio, an illegitimate. Though pro- mising to respect all privileges, he excludes Dutch vessels from Lisbon, increases the royal domains, and depresses the nobility. By the con- quest of Portugal, Spain thus doubles her colonial empire. 360. Ada. Yermak, a Cossack in the service of the Stroganoff family, enters Siberia; hunters and traders follow, and garrisons are esta- blished. Within 80 years, Russia reaches the Pacific. 361. En^and. Regarding the Jesuits and the seminary priests riKoi as conspirators against the Crown, Parliament enacts the Recu- L^^^*'- sancy Laws, imposing fines and imprisonment for hearing mass and for absence from Church. Campion is arrested and executed ; other priests are tortured, and Parsons escapes abroad. Elizabeth pushes on negociations for the Anjou marriage, and Anjou arrives at Court for a visit of three months. The Turkey or Levant Company receives a Charter, Aleppo being chosen as its chief mart 362. Netherlands. After urgent pressure from William, the Northern Provinces formally renounce their allegiance to Philip, and are per- 1681] CULTURE. 77 ^22, French Lit. Lorivey's works^ based on Plautus and Terence and the Italian comedy. Heniy Stepluuius protests against the predominance of Italian fiELshions in his Pr^cellence de la Langue Franfaise. S23. Polities. The Vindiciae Qallicae, by Langaet and Duplessis- Morna^, a philosophical defence of the right of the people to maintain their hberties and religion against a ruler. Buchanan, tutor to James VI., in his De Jure Regni, inculcates obedience to a good ruler, even if an usurper, and resistance to a bad ruler. The work is burned, 1584, and attacked by Blackwood and Barclay. Paruta's Perfezione Politica eulogises the Venetian constitution as combining monarchy, aristocracy and democracy. ^24, Death. Hosius. 5^5- yy. Scotch Ch. The Second Book of Discipline is presented ri kqa to Parliament ; but episcopacy is maintained. ^ S26. German Ch. Andreae adds a conciliatory Praefatio to the Formula Goncordiae, which is now published, and is adopted by most Lutheran churches, with the Liber Ooncordiae, containing the Augsburg Confession and Apology, Luther's Catechism, and the SchmiJkald Articles of 1537. Many Melanchthonians, on the other hand, join the Cal- vinists, who increase largely in the Palatinate, Nassau, Anhalt, Bremen, Hesse and Brandenburg. j^7. Eng. Lit. Qabriel Harvey attempts to naturalise classical metres^ especially hexameters, and infects Spenser and his circle. Sidney's Arcadia, a romance suggested by Euphues. S28. French Lit. Montaigne's Esaais, Livres 1, 2. Gamiei^s Les Juives. j-^p. NetherlaadB Lit. The Elzevirs establish their press at Am- sterdam. 5ja Spanish Lit. ^ Herrera's Annotations on Garcilaso de la Vega. 5JZ. Science. Palissy asserts that fossil-shells were real sea-shells left by the ocean, and belonged to marine animals that had lived where they were found. 5jj?. History. Zurita completes his Annals of Aragon. 533. Death. Camoens. 534. Scotch Oh. The Second Scotch Confession, fiercely anti- v\fA\ papal, is drawn up by Craig, subscribed by liie King and the I- Assembly, and freouently confirmed. 5^5. Italian Ch. ^Uarmine's De Controversiis Christianae Fidei. 5jfd. Eng. Lit. Sidne/s Defence of Poesy, in answer to Gosson's School of Abuse. 557. Italian Lit. Tasso's Gerusalemme Liberata. 5jtch Ch. The Presbyterian s^tem is fully established n raa by the Scotch ParliameDt, which ratifies the Second Book of ^ liiscipline. Episcopacy, though not abolished, possesses no jurisdiction. 608. Oennan Ch. Hunnius and other Lutherans draw up Four Articles of Visitation with a view to suppress crypto-Calvinism in Saxony. 609, Swiss Ch. Francis de Sales, Bishop of Geneva, begins to preach in Ghalais. 610, Chureh Hist The revision of the Vulgate, ordered by* the Council of Trent and published 1589, is revised, owing to the criticisms of Bellarmine, the final revision appearing 1593. 611, Spanish Lit. Lope de Vega's (uamas begin to be acted at Madrid. 612. Science. Galileo's Scienza Mechanica explains the raising of weights. 61S, History. Mariana's History of Spain tiU 1516. 6H, Archaeology. The remains of Pompeii are discovered. 615. Death. Montaigne. 616. Kng. Ch. Parliament banishes all above 16 who refuse to ri 593 attend ^urch. A large number of Catholics and Puritans leave ^ the country. The Brownist leaders, Barrow, Penry and Greenwood, are executed under the libel law of 1581. Bancroft's Dangerous Positions maintains that Puritan teachings involve a danger to society. 617. Asiatic Ch. The first Christians are executed in Japan. 618. French Lit. The Satire Menipp^ composed by Pithou, Rapin, Passerat, Gillot, satirises the extreme members of the League. 619. FhUology. Scali^er's departure for Leyden ushers in the third or Dutch period of classical learning, of Grotius, Heinsius, Gronovius, Gerard and Isaac Vossius, Cluvenus, Meursius, Graevius. 620. Archaeology. Bosio begins to explore the Boman Catacombs. 621. Death. Marlowe. e22. Eng. Ch. Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity, Books 1 — 4, r^^g^ defends the Anglican Via Media against Rome and Geneva, ^ and maintains that the external ordering of the Church is a matter of expediency. 628. French Ch. Pithou's Libert^ de I'Eglise Gallicane first fully states Erastian Gallicanism. The Pope is declared to be without power in temporal, and bound by the old French Councils in spiritual, matters. 62i. Eng. Lit. Shakespere composes most of his Sonnets. Nash's Jack Wilton introduces the novel of adventure. 625. Literature. Casaubon and Scali^er begin to correspond. 626. Politics. Hooker declares the pnmitive condition of men to have been one of war, and government to nave originated by a contract. 627. Deaths. Pidestrina, Tintoretto. 88 POLITICS [1696 427. Ireland. Sir John Norris is sent to subdue the revolt of n 595 Tyrone, but fails. '^ ^ 428. France. Henry formally declares war against Spain, which captures a number of towns on the N.E. frontier. At the most cntical moment he is absolved by the Pope, and agrees to restore Gatliolic propertv and worship in his hereditary dominions, and to accept certain of the articles of the Council of Trent. ^ 429. lYetherlands. The Age of the Archdukes begins with the appoint- ment of Albert of Austria, the husband of Philip's daughter Isabella, to the position of Gtovemor. ... 430. America. Raleigh visits Guiana in search of El Dorado, and sails up the Orinoco. 431. Asia. The Dutch establish their first Factory in the East in Java. 432. En^and. An offensive and defensive coalition is formed n egg by France and England against Spain, to which the Dutch, who ■- are thus recognised as an independent State, shortly accede. Essex, Raleigh and Howard of Effingham lead an expedition, in which the Dutch join, against Spain. The Spanish fleet is destroyed in Cadiz harbour, and the city is sacked. 433. France. Mayenne submits to Henry, and Epemon is deserted in Provence. Mercoeur alone holds out in Brittany. The Archduke Albert, however, takes Calais. Henry convokes an Assembly of Notables at Rouen, and lays before them his scheme of reforms. He permits the establishment of a Council of Finance, which, however, only exists for three months. 434. Netherlands. Philip repudiates debts contracted by Spanish troops and officials. 435. En^and. The privileges of the Hanse nierchants are with* ri 597 drawn. 436. France. The Spaniards seize Amiens, but Henry retakes it. Negotiations begin under the Pope's mediation. Mercoeur, the last French noble in arms against the King, yields. 437. Netherlands. Maurice and Vere rout the Spaniards at Turnhout. 438. France. The war with Spain is terminated by the Treaty ri 590 of Vervins, by which France regains her losses, and rhilip resigns ^ his claim to the French throne. 439. Spain. Philip II. is succeeded by his son, Philip III., who is guided by Lerma. 440. Qermany. The Oera Bond is made by which the younger branch of the Hohenzollerns is to possess Culmbach ; if either branch fails, the 1598] CULTUBE 89 6^. Eng. Ch. Barret attacks the authority and doctrine of the ri 595 German and Swiss Protestants, and founds the Anglo-GaUiolic ^ movement at Cambridge. In reply, Whitaker draws up the strictly Calvinist Lambeth Articles, which are adopted, with slight modifica- tions, by Whitgift and sevcaral other bishops. Bound's True Doctrine of the Sabbath sjrstematises and expounds the Puritan theory. 629, French Ch. The Jesuits refuse to recognise Henry as King, despite his conversion, and are attacked by Armiuld on behalf of the University of Paris. On an attempt by Ghastel, a student of Clermont Coll^, on the King's life, the Order is expelled. 650. Polish Ch. At the synod of Brzesc, the Polish Church attaches itself to the Western Church. 651. Deaths. PhiUp Neri/rasso. [1596 652, ^ Eng. Ch. Peter Baro, Lady Margaret Professor at Cam- bridge, attacks the Lambeth Articles from an Anglo-Cadiolic standpoint, and is warmly supported by Overall and Andrewes. 653, french Ch. Malaonatus' Commentaries on the New Testament. Bodin leaves his Heptaplomeres in MS., a sceptical dialogue on religions, published 1847. 6Sj. Qerman Ch. The Archduke Ferdinand in Styria, and Maximilian in Bavaria, stamp out Protestantism. 6S5, Eng. Lit. Ben Jonson's Every Man in his Humour. 636. Science. Kheticus' Opus Palatinum, a computation of pure trigonometrical tables. Pitiscus supplies the addition formulae, 1599. 6S7. Education. Lectures begin at Gresham College, London. 638. Geography. Barents, the pilot of a Dutch expedition^ discovers Spitzbergen, and sails round the N.W. of Nova 2iembla. 639. Deaths. Bodin, Drake. 640. Eng. Lit. Bacon's first ten Essays. ^ ^ [1597 Bodley bequeathes his library to Oxford University. *• 641. French Ch. Desiring to ward ofiF political danger, Henry ^5^593 issues the Edict of Nantes, by which the Huguenots obtain ^ toleration and the right of worship wherever it has been celebrated within two years, admission to schools and college^ and eligibility to office. They must, however, gay tithes, renounce all dealings with foreign powers, and dissolve their provincial assemblies. The Edict is violently opposed by the Pope and Parliament, by which it is not registered till 1599. The clause concerning admission to office remains a dead letter. Da Plessis-Momay's L'Institution de TEucharistie. 90 POUTics [1698 other is to inherit the Electorship and the Margravate until they can be again divided. Catholicism is restored in Aachen by military forca 441. Italy. Ferrara is annexed by the rope, on the death of Alfonso II., the last of the Este. Modena passes to an illegitimate member of the &mily. 442. Bnssia. Feodore dies, and the house of Rurik comes to an end. Boris succeeds, and forces the head of the Bomanoffs, who are related to the house of Rurik by marriage, to become a monk. 443. Asia. The War of China and Japan ends. Hideyoshi dies, and his general, Jeyasu Toku^wa, restores the Shogunate, which remains in his family till 1868. Korea does not recover from the struggle for several generations. 444. Ireland. Essex is sent to cope with Tyrone's rebellion, riRgg which has grown into a national movement. He &ils, returns ^ without permission, and is imprisoned. 445. France. Qabrielle d'Estr^es dies. SuUv becomes superintendent of the finances, pays off the debt and accumulates a reserve, reduces the Taille, recovers part of the royal domain, revives agriculture, constructs roads and canals, and reorganises the artillery and ambulance departments of the army. He also ak>lishes sinecure offices, and makes seats in the Parliament hereditary on payment of an annual tax. The King supports SuUy in his reforms, out devotes his chief attention to manufactures and commerce. 446. Spain. An Armada for the invasion of England is equipped at Lisbon, but on sailing is scattered by a storm. 447. Hnngary. Michael the Brave, of Wallachia, defeats Andrew Bathory, a tool of the Sultan, and conquers Transylvania, with the Emperor's approval. 448. France. Henry obtains the sanction of the Pope for his n aaq divorce from Margaret of Valois, and marries Mary de Medici, '- who brings him mile heirs. Henry declares war on the Duke of Savoy, who has annexed Saluzzo, 1588, and refrises to surrender it 449. Netherlands. Negotiations begun by the Archduke fail, and Maurice enters Flanders and besieges I^ieuport. The Archduke with a relieving army is utterly routed ; but Maurice, too weak to conquer Flanders, returns to Holland. 450. Asia. In consequence of the raising of the price of pepper by the Dutch, an Association of London merclumts for trading witn the East Indies is formed, with 125 shareholders and £70,000 capital. The fii»t 1600] CULTURE 91 64^. Spanish Ch. Paramo's History and Methods of the InquisitioD. 64S. Netherlands Ch. St Aldegonde's Diif^rends de la Religion Ghr^tienne. 644. ^^' Lit. Stow's Survey of London. 64s, Spanish Lit. Lope de V e^'s Arcadia, a pastoral novel 64.6. Philosophy. Du Vair's Philosophie Morale des Stoiciens. 64T, Education. Henrv IV. reorganises the University of Paris, and attempts to encourage the direct study of the classics, the Bible and the natural sciences. 64s, Geography. Lindschoten publishes his voyages and maps of the East, from which the Dutch and English obtain their first reliable information. 649. Deaths. St Aldegonde, Burleigh, Stephanus. 650, Asiatic Ch. At the Sjmod of Diamper, convened by the nKga Archbishop of Ooa, the Syrians or Nestorian Cliristians are com- ^ polled to join the Roman Church. 651. Spanish Lit. Lope de V^a's San Isidoro, a poem in honour of Madrid's patron saint. Guzman d'Alfeurache, a picaresque novel 66^, Science. Aldovrandus' Encyclonaedia of Natural Historv. Wright's Errors in Navigation Detected explains the theory of meridional parts. 653, Politics. Mariana's De Rege discusses the orinn and limits of royal power, with illustrations m>m contemporary Trance, from an extreme Ultramontane standpoint. Eang James' Basilican Doron, composed for his son Henry, con- demns Pr^byterianism as a foe to royal power. 654* Philology. Scaliger's De Europaeorum linguis Diatriba, the first classification of languages. 655. Education. The GoUegium Mauritianum is instituted at the Court of EabscI, the chief of the Ritter- Academien for the education of the nobility. 656. Death. Spenser. 657. Scotch Ch. James appints three new Bishops, who, how- n^Q^ ever, are not recognised by the ChurcL '• 658. French Ch. The King arranges and is present at a Conference at Fontainebleau, to discuss Du Plessis-Momay s work on the Eucharist. Momay's accuracy of (quotation is successfully impeached by Duperron^ and French Protestantism loses prestige. 659. Italian Ch. After seven years' imprisonment by the Incjuisition, Bruno is burned in Rome for maintaining the plurality of inhabited worlds, having recanted his other heresies. 660. Eng. JAt, England's Helicon, a collection of fugitive verse by Sidney, Raleigh, Oreene, Lodge. 661. ^ience. Gilbert's De Magneto, the first considerable work in English science since Roffer Bacon. Kircher invents the Magic Lantern. 92 POLITICS [1600 voyage of the East India Company, commanded by Lancaster, is made 1601, and a factoiy is established at Bantam. 451. Hungary. Michael the Brave conquers Moldavia, and for a moment unites all Roumanian lands. Hungary, however, throws off his yoke, and Michael is killed, 1601. 452. En^and. Essex, who has been deprived by the Queen rj^gQ^ of the monopoly of sweet wines on which he depends and who, '- though liberated, is forbidden to come to Court, attempts to force the Queen to change her ministers. He is arrest^, accused of plotting with the Scotch King, prosecuted by Coke and Bacon, and executed. To pay for the conquest of Ireland, the Queen summons Parliament, which grants supplies, out compels Elizabeth to promise to revoke all burdensome monopolies. 453. Ireland. A Spanish fleet and a small army land at Einsale, but are defeated and compelled to withdraw. 454. Savoy. Peace is made at Lyons, Savoy retaining Saluzzo, and ceding Valromey, Qex, Bresse and Bagey, which connect France and Switzerland 455. Russia. The faiae Demetrius, perhaps a moUn4 of the Jesuits, appears in Poland, and is acknowledged by the l^g. 456. En^aad. Elizabeth attempts to revive the coalition of ^ai^ 1596, and proposes to Henry an offensive allitmce against Spain. ^ The offer is rejected, renewed after the conspiracy of Biron, and again rejected. 457. France. Biron's plot with Spain and Savoy and Bouillon, the Huguenot leader, for the dismemberment of France, is discovered, and Biron is executed. 458. Switzerland. The Duke of Savoy's attempt to seize treneva (the •Escalade') fails. 459. AsicL The Dutch Companies are amalgamated into a national East India Company, which ejects the Portuguese from the Moluccas, and monopolises the spice-trade. 460. En^and. Elizabeth indicates her preference for the King ri aqq of Scots, though the legal heir is William Seymour, representative ^ of the Suffo^ line. On the death of the Queen, James succeeds without opposition, retains Bobert Cecil as Secretary of State, and makes peace with Spain. The Main Plot, perhaps to put Arabella Stuart, a descendant of Margaret Tudor, on the throne, is discovered, and BaJeigh is imprisoned. 1603] CtJLTUBE 93 662, Art Eurydice, the libretto by RinucciDi, the music by Peri, is performed at the marriage of Henry IV. and Mary de Medici, and fonnds the opera, which is developed by Monteverae. The first Oratorio, composed by Cavaliere, is performed in the Oratory at Borne. 66S. Law. Coke's Reports. 664. Philology. Gasaubon's Commentaries on Athenaeus. 665. Agriculture. Olivier de Serre's Th^tre de T Agriculture, baaed on 30 years' experience^ aids the revival of agriculture, 666. Death. Hooker. 667. Philosophy. Charron's De la Sagesse, the first modem q^q^ attempt at a system of ethics without theology, deeply influenced ^ by his friend and master Montaigne. 668. Philology. Gruter, with the aid^ of Scaliger, edits a Corpus Inscriptionum Antiquarum Orbis Romani. 669. Social. The Poor Law assumes the form which it substantiallv retains till 1834. The administrators are empowered to provide work for the able, relief for the impotent, and punishment for the idle, and children are to be trained to work. 670. Death. Tycho Brahe. 671. French Ch. Francis de Sales preaches the Lent course of ngAg sermons in the Louvre, and becomes Archbishop of Geneva. ^ 672. Bohaoiian Ch. The Emperor revives tne edicts of persecution against Protestants. 67S. Church Hist. Qyril Lucar, a Cretan, becomes Patriarch of Alexandria. Having visited Wittenbenz and Geneva, he attempts to introduce Calvinism into the Eastern Church, sends students to Pro- testant Universities, and corresponds with Abbot, Utenbogaert, and other Protestants. 674. Eng. Lit. Shakespere's Hamlet. 675. Art. Guide Reni settles in Rome, and paints, among other works, the Aurora in the Rospigliosi palace. 676. Eng. Ch. The new King is greeted with the Millenaiy and n qqs other petitions from the various parties in the Church, and ^ promises a conference for their discussion. 677. French Ch. Despite the opposition of the Parliament and Uni- versity of Paris, the Jesuits are re-admitted. Thev receive the royal Chateau at La Fl^he for a seminary, and Coton becomes the King's Confessor. 678. Polish Ch. Socinus rallies the Unitarian parties to his own views at the synod of Sj&cau. 679. Eng. Lit. Florio's translation of Montaigne. 94 POLITICS [1603 461. Ireland. Tyrone submits to Mountjoy, the country being more thoroughly reduced than at any previous time. 462. Germany. The Anspach Une of HohenzoUems dies out and the Elector of Brandenburg grants their possessions to his brothers. He gives Jagemdorf, in Silesia, bought by Oeorge of Anspach in 1524, t(D his second son, from whom it is confiscated by the Emperor, 1623. 463. En^and. James' first Parliament meets, vindicates its noQ^ claims to the control of its own elections and the fireedom of its ^ members from arrest, and resists the King's proposal for a union with Scotland. Despite Sully's mission to London, peace is made with Spain, James promising not to support the Dutch, nor trade in the Indies. 464. Netherlands. Spinola takes Ostend, after three and a half years' siege. 465. Sweden. Sigismund is deposed and succeeded by Charles IX. 466. Russia. Demetrius invades Russia, but is twice defeated by Boris. 467. Hungary. The Hungarians join Stephen Bocskai, who invades Hungary and is proclaimed King of Hungary and Transylvania, 1605. He obtains from the Emperor constitutional government and toleration. 468. America. Henry IV. sends De Monts to colonise Acadia. Port Royal (the present Annapolis) is founded, and Champlain explores the coasts. 469. England. In consequence of the banishment of priests riane firom London, 1604, Gatesby and some firiends resolve to blow up ^ King and Parliament, and send for Guy Fawkes from Flanders to execute the scheme. Ounpowder Plot, however, is revealed by one of the conspirators, on the eve of the meeting of Parliament, Nov. 5. 470. Russia. Boris dies, and Demetrius is killed in a revolution in Moscow. A relative of the house of Rurik becomes Tsar, on making cessions of territory to Sweden, and receiving the aid of a Swedish army. A second Demetrius is brought forward by the Poles. 471. America. Possession is formally taken of Ba^badoes, the first English colony, which is not settled till 1624. 472. Asia. Akbar is succeeded by Jehangir, under whom the Moffhul Empire is weakened by the revolts of his sons and the loss of Eandiuiar. 1605] CULTUBE 95 680. Science. Ge&i founds the Academia dei Lincei in Rome. Fabricius of Acquapendente discovers valves in the veins. 681. PoliticB. Althusius' Politica recommends a republican govern- ment, in which the chief magistrate is aided and controlled bv Ephors, and the representatives are chosen only among the wealthy. His teaching is developed by his follower Boxhorn. 682. Deaths. Cartwright, Gilbert, Vieta. 683, Eng. Ch. A Conference is held at Hampton Court, repre- n QA4 sented bv Whitgift, Bancroft, Bilson and others on the Anglican ^ side, and Reynolds, Chaderton and others on the Puritan. The King rejects every demand of the Puritans, except that for the revision of the Bible. Convocation composes some new canons, and orders the clerOT to subscribe the ^clesiastical supremacy of the Crown, the Prayer-book, and the Articles. The Canons, though not enforced by law, lead to the ejection of a number of clergy. 684, German Ch. Paraeus, Professor at Heidelberg, which has suc- ceeded to Geneva as the chief School of Calvinism, issues an Irenicum, which is attacked by Hutter and other Lutherans. 685, Netherlands Ch. Arminius is appointed Professor of Theology at Leyden, and commences his strugjD[le with Gomarus, his colleague. 686, Science. Kepler's Optics explam the structure of the eye, and the formation of images on the retina. 687, History. De Thou's History of his Times. 688, SociaL Elizabeth's mild statute against witchcraft is superseded by a severe Act, under which hundreds are executed. 689, Deaths. Faustus Socinus, Whitgift. 690, Scotch Ch. James banishes a number of Presbyterian maqr ministers, alienates Church property and restores the Bishops, ■- and is recognised as supreme in temporal and spiritual matters. 691, Oerman Ch. Johann Amdt's Wahres Christenthum (and Para- dies-gartlein), based on the teaching of Weigel and other mystics, initiates a reaction against dogmatism and founds Pietism in Germany. 692, Polish Ch. The Bacovian Catechism, compiled by Socinus, Crell and others, becomes the recognised creed of the Unitarians. 693, Eng. Lit. Ben Jonson writes Volpone, and begins to compose masques, or plays for the Court, adapted to scenery and music, wnich remain popular till the Civil War. 694, French Lit. Vauquelin de la Fresnaye's L'Art Po^tique, the riswmS and last product of the Ple'iade movement. Malherbe now settles at Court, and his verses develope the classical style. 695, Spanish Lit. Cervantes' Don Quixote, Part I. 696, Philosophy. Bacon's Advancement of Learning, a survey of the condition and needs of the sciences, introductory to a reconstruction of human knowledge. €197. Death. Beza. 96 POLITICS [1606 473. TSntfand, Bates, a merchant, chaUenges the King's right n qq^ to levy a duty on currants ; but the Court of Exchequer decides ^ that the King may levy impositions by his own authority. 474. Italy. The daim of Venice, whose attitude is largely determined and defended by Saipi, to exercise criminal jurisdiction over priests is met by an interdict, the last issued by the Roman Church, on which the Republic banishes the Orders. France arranges a compromise, the prisoners bein^ tried by an Ecclesiastical Court, while the Jesuits remain in banishment till 1651. 475. America. Largely in consequence of the satisfiictory refwrts brought back by Gosnold, 1602, and Weymouth, 1605, Virginia is divided between the liondon and Plymouth Companies. 476. Asia. The fifth Governor of the Sikns dies, and the Goyemorship becomes hereditary. The sect is transformed into an army, and b^ins a Holy War against the Moghul Emperors. 477. En^ancL Parliament refusing to concede free-trade and to nQM recognise the Scotch, the King obtains a decision from the judges, ^ by a test case (the Post-Nati), that Scottish subjects bom alter his accession are l^ally naturalised. 478. Ireland. Tyrone and Tyrconnel, finding resistance hopeless, flee to Spain ; James confiiscates a large part of Ulster, which is colonised by English and Scotch settlers. 479. Holland. Heemskerk destroys the Spanish fleet at Gibraltar, and Spinola's troops mutiny for want of pay. 480. Spcun. Owing to Spanish repudiations, the Bank of Genoa fails. 481. America. A settlement is made by the Plymouth Company in North Virginia; but many of the colonists die and the rest return, 1608. At the same time a settlement is made at Jamestown^ in Southern Virginia^ by John Smith. 482. Oennany. In consequence of the annexation of the moao strongly Protestant Donauworth, on account of a riot, by Maxi- •- milian of Bavaria, acting on the order of the Aulic Council, the Pro- testants at the Diet of Katisbon deny the right of the majority to bind the minority, and a Protestant Union, firom which, however, Lutherans stand aloof, is formed. 483. Austria. The Archdukes, exasperated by the conduct of Rudolf, compel him to name his brother Matthias Governor of Austria, Hungary and Moravia, and to promise him the succession in Bohemia. 1608] CULTURE 97 698. Eng. Ch. Though James infonns the Pope that he will moqq acknowledge him as the first Bishop and President of the Church, ■- if he will renounce the claim to depose sovereigns, (jamet, arrested for complicity in Gunpowder Plot, equivocates. An oath of allegiance is imposed on Catholics, and is condemned by the Pope, attacked by BeUarmine, Barclay, Suarez, Becanus and Scioppius, and defended by the King himself, Andrewes and others, the controversy lasting for 10 years. The King requests convocation to draw up a number of canons on civil government. The articles irritate the King by inculcating obedi- ence to the de facto ruler, and are neither ratifi^ nor published. Field's Book of the Church. 699. Hungarian Ch. Bocskay obtains perfect equality for Protestants. 700. Dntch Ch. Teellinck, * the reformed Kemjjis,' after a visit to England and acquaintance with the Puritans, begins his mystical yet orthodox teaching at Leyden. 701. Polish Lit. The Macaronic Period, dominated by the Jesuits, b^ins and continues for a century and a half. 702. History. Scaliger's Thesaurus Temporum contains every chrono- logical relic in Greek and Latin, and reconstructs the Chronicon of Eusebius. 703. Geography. Torres, a Spaniard, sails between New Guinea and Australia. 704. Death. Lipsius. 705. Church Hist. The Pope dismisses the Congregation De rian? Auxiliis without pronouncing a decision, and imposes silence on ^ the disputants. 706. Eng. Lit. Hall's Mundus Alter et Idem, a philosophical romance, revives the style of More, and is followed by JBacon's New Atlantis and Godwin's Man in the Moon. 707. Literature. Scioppius, the gladiator of the ^ Jesuits, attacks Scaliger in his Scaliger Hypobolimaeus, in which he ridicules his claim to descent from the ocala family of Verona. 708. Art The Friedrichsbau is added to the Schloss at Heidelberg, with very rich ornamentation. 709. Education. The Lutherans leave Marburg and institute a rival University at Giessen, also in Hesse. 710. Death. Baronius. 711. Eng. Ch. The Separatist congre^tion meeting in Brew- rigAo ster's house at Scrooby, Northamptonshire, emigrates to Holland. ^ 712. French Ch. Francis de Sales' Introduction to a Devout Life, followed by his Spiritual Letters. 713. Eng. Lit. Beaumont and Fletcher^s first play, Philaster. 714. French Lit. Begnier's Satires. 716. American Lit. Captain John Smith's True Relation of Virginia. 716. Science. Hans Lippersheim invents the telescope, and Joannides or Galileo invents the microscope. o. 7 98 POLITICS [1608 484. Axnerioa. Ghamplaiii founds Quebec, and begins the struggle with the Iroquois. 485. Oermany. A Catholic League is formed by Maximilian, of m aqq which Philip III. becomes Protector. '■ The DuKe of Gleves and Jiilich dies, and the succession is claimed by the Elector of Brandenburg, the son of the Duke of Neubur^, both Lutherans, and six others. Fearing, however, the presence of a heretic ruler near the Netherlands, the Emperor claims the provinces, in conse- quence of which the rivals join hands and annex the country. 486. Spain. The Moors and the Moriscoes, numbering about 500,000, are expelled by Lerma, to the irreparable damage of agriculture and industry. 487. Bohemia. Zerotin and the Protestants of Bohemia compel the Emperor to issue his Majestatsbrief granting toleration to the Pro- testants. 488. Holland. Owing to the mediation of President Jeannin and others, a truce of 12 years is made with Spain and guaranteed by France and the Emneror. Spain, however, refuses to recomiise the independence of the Netherlands, and the States refuse to pledge them- selves to tolerate Catholics. The Bank of Amsterdam is instituted and largely contributes to the prosperity of the country. 489. Kuraia. The Poles invade Russia, proclaim the son of their King Tsar, and take Moscow. 490. Amerioa. Paraguay, occupied by Spain since 1586, is handed over to the Jesuits, who establish a theocracy based on communism. 491. West Indies. The Bermudas are taken by the Virginia Co., and a colony is planted in 1612. 492. En^and. To gain money, James agrees to abandon certain ri 51 n feudal dues and part of the Impositions, and to declare that all ^ further levy of such duties without Parliamentary consent is illegal, in return for a grant of X200,000 a year. The absolutist teaching of Dr Cowell, Professor of Civil Law at Cambridge, in his Interpreter, is brou^t before Parliament by Coke, and receives a censure in which the King joins. 493. Oermany. The Archduke Leopold seizes Jiilich, but is expelled by a force of English, Dutch and Germans. 494. France. Henry allies with the Protestant Union, and prepares to intervene in Germany. At this time, he is said by Sully to nave elaborated a plan of international federation or Christian Republic, and a rearrangement of the map of Europe to secure peace and to resist Hapsburg encroachments. On the eve of setting out, he is murdered 1610] CULTURE 99 7/7. Art. After seven years' study in Italy, Kubens settles in Antwerp and becomes Court-Painter to the Archduke Albert. 718, Eng. Ch. Jacob, an Independent, vrrites An Humble riAQg Supplication for Toleration. ^ 719, French Ch. Ang^lique Amauld, who has been made Abbess of Port-Royal at 10, is awakened (at 17) by an itinerant i>reacher and begins the reform of the monasteiy (Joum6e du Guichet), in which she is aided by Francis de Sales and Madame ChantaL 720, Eng. Lit. Shakespere's Sonnets are published without his sanction. 721, Italian Lit. The Ambrosian Library at Milan is founded by Cardinal Frederick Borromeo. 722, Science. Jansen, a Dutch spectacle-maker, and Galileo construct telescopes. The latter applies it to astronomy, and discovers irre- gularities in the surface of the moon, four satellites of Jupiter, the phases of Venus (both of which confirm his belief in the Ck)pemican OTstemX and the sun-spots, from the observation of which he learns tnat the sun revolves on its own axis in 28 days. Kepler discovers that Mars does not revolve as Tycho's observations led him to expect, and proves in his Astronomia Nova that it moves not in a circle but in an ellipse. His Second Law explains that the planets move quickest when near the sun, so that a line from the sun to a planet moves over equal areas in equal times. 72S, tieiw, Grotius' Mare Liberum declares that, by the law of nature, the sea cannot be monopolised by any single country. 724, Deaths. Arminius, Ciuravaggio, Scaliger. 725. Eng. Ch. Abbot, the opponent of Laud at Oxford, becomes n gi a Archbishop of Canterbury. L 726. Scotcn Ch. The titular Bishops are consecrated in England and receive friU authority from the General Assembly, the Scotch Parliament ratifying all that has been done. Courts of High Commission are insti- tuted at Glasgow and St Andrews. 727. French Ch. Francis de Sales and Madame Chantal found the female Order of the Visitation, modelled on the Ursulines, which rapidly spreads beyond Savoy, and is approved by the Pope, 1618. 728. Oerman Ch. Gerhard's Loci Theologici, a Lutheran text-book 729. Dutch Ch. On the death of Arminius, Episcopius, Utenbogaert and Vorstius compose a Remonstrance, of five Articles, declaring that predestination is conditional. The Gomarists reply in a Counter- Remonstrance. 730. Church Hist. Bellarmine maintains the infallibility and universal monarchy of the Pope, relying, in part, on the Isidorian Decretals. 731. Eng. Lit. Donne's Anatomv of the World, followed by his Satires, founds the so-called Metaphysical School. 732. French Lit. D'Urf^'s Astr^e introduces the pastoral novel. Mme de Rambouillet begins to gather a literary circle round her, which dominates French taste for a generation. 7—2 100 POLITICS [1610 by Bavaillac (May). Mary de Medici and her favourite Goncini throw themselves into the arms of Spain and the Jesuits, and Sully retires from office. 495. Italy. Henry of France concludes the Treat^r of Brusol with Savoy for the liberation of Lombardy ; but the execution of the scheme is prevented by the murder of the King. 496. En^and. The marriage of the Princess Elizabeth with q^^i the young Elector Palatine is discussed. ^ Owing to the Commons' attack on the High Commission and Royal Proclamations, James dissolves Parliament before the Great Contract is finally arranged. The King raises money by instituting the order of Baronets. Arabella Stuart is imprisoned for marrying William Seymour, a descendant of Maiy, sister of Henry VIII. 497. Germany. The Duchj of Prussia passes to the Elector of Brandenburg, though remaining subject to the suzerainty of Poland. John George becomes Elector of Saxony and leader of the Lutheran party. 498. sohemia. Rudolf, who has tried to evade his promises of 1609, is deposed by the Bohemians, and the Crown is transferred to Matthias. 499. Sweden. Gustavus Adolphus becomes King and Oxenstiem his Chancellor. 500. Asia. The Dutch receive permission to trade with Japan* 501.^ En^and. Cecil dies, and the Treasury is put in Com- nQ]^2 mission. James resolves to become his own Secreta^ ; but Garr, ■- afterwards Earl of Somerset, becomes the King's favourite. Prince Henry dies, at 19, under suspicion of poison. 502. Oemmny. The Protestant Union allies with the Elector Palatine. 503. Austria. Matthias becomes Emperor. 504. Italy. On the death of the Duke of Mantua and Montfenrat, Charles Emanuel of Savoy claims Montferrat for a ^anddaughter, but is expelled by France and Spain. Spain orders him to disband his 1612] CULTURE 101 7S3, Science. Harriott, Fabricius and Scheiner discover sunspots. 734, Politics. The Sorbonne renews the decree of the Council of Constance against tjrrannicide, and condemns Mariana. Aquaviva, the Jesuit Greneral, disclaims the tenet on behalf of the Order. 735, Geography. Hudson, a marine in the Dutch service, discovers Hudson's Bay, but is turned adrift in an open boat by mutineers. 736, History. Saipi's History of Ecclesiastical Benefices. 737, Death. Ricci. [1611 738, Eng. Ch. ITie revision of the Bible, commenced 1607 by 47 divines, including Andrewes, Overall, Miles Smith, Reynolds, Saravia, Chaderton, on the basis of the Bishops' Bible, becomes the Authorised Version. The General or Arminian Baptists draw up their first Confession. 739, French Ch. A third attack on the Jesuits by the Universi^ of Paris is made by Richer, the Syndic. The Order is compelled to disown regicide and anti-Gallican tenets, and is forbidden to teach. In defending the Gallican position, however, and in the De Ecclesiastica et Politica Potestate, which he composes by request, Richer lays himself open to the attacks of Duperron, is deserted by Parliament in its fear of a breach with Rome, and deposed from his post of Syndic. A branch of the congregation of the Oratory is founded by B^rulle in order to raise the secmar clergy by study and personal influence. On B^rulle's death, Charles de Condren becomes General 740, American Ch. The Jesuits found a mission in Canada. 741' Spanish Lit. Gon^ora developes ' Culteranismo,' introduced into Spain by Carrillo. Despite the attacks of Lope, euphuism influences Spanish literature for a century. 74^, Dutch Lit. Brederoo's Roderick and Alphonsus initiates modem Dutch Comedy. 743. Death. Perez. 744^ Eng. Ch. Legatt and Wightman, Unitarians, are burned, n 01 n Smith and Helwisse, seceders from the Congregationalists, ^ return from Amsterdam, where they have been mfluenced by the Mennonites, and found a Baptist Church in London. Sir Henry Savile's edition of Chrysostom. 745. German Ch. Bohme's Aurora, a system of theosophic pantheism, owes much to Paracelsus, Schwenkfeld, and Weigel. 746. Dutch Ch. At the instigation of Abbot, King James obtains the dismissal of Vorstius, Professor of Theolo^ at Leyden. 747. Church Hist. The Monita Secreta Societatis Jesu, professing to be derived from private instructions from Aquaviva to probationers, are published. 748. Dutch Lit. Vondel's first Biblical play, Het Pascha. 749. Italian Lit. The Accademia deUa Crusca issues its Dictionary. 102 POLITICS [1612 troops ; but he appeals to the Italian States to expel the stranger, and, thouffh impotent, is hailed as the liberator of Italy. 505. Asia. The English settle at Surat, near Bombay, and Sir Thomas Roe, Ambassador to Jehangir, obtains privileges for thenu 506. England. Princess Elizabeth marries Frederick, Elector mq^^q Palatine. '■ Bacon becomes Attomey-Cjeneral, and wins the confidence of the King, being made Chancellor 1617. Gondomar, the Spanish Ambassador, arrives and gains immense influence over the Emg. 507. Germany. The Protestant Union allies with the Dutch Provinces. The Diet, the last before the war, refuses to aid the Emperor against the Turks, desiring to discuss religious questions alone. 508. Hnngfikry. Bethlen-Gabor, a Protestant, establishes himself in Transylvania, where he reigns till 1629. 509. Russia. The Troitza Monastery holds out against the Poles, Moscow is retaken, and the Poles expelled. Michael, son of Philaret, Patriarch of Moscow, becomes Tsar and founder of the house of Romanofif. 510. En^axLcL The Second, or Addled Parliament, summoned riow on the advice of the so-called Undertakers, meets, but is dis- ^ solved for refusing supplies till it has discussed the Kinfl|'s impositions. Peacham, a country Rector, is arrested and tortured for an attack on the King, found among his papers. Oondomar proposes to James a Spanish marriage. 511. France. The first of a new series of Civil Wars breaks out under Cond^, who aspires to the Begency, and obtains a promise to summon the States-Greneral. At their meeting, in which lUchelieu speaks on behalf of the clergy, the Tiers itst attacks the Taille and the raulette, urges the abolition of pensions, and demands a declaration that no power can depose the Ein^. The Estates are dissolved before the answers to the Cahiers are given, and do not meet again till 1789. 512. Germany. The danger of war incurred by Neuburg's conversion to Catholicism and his appeal to the Catholic League is removed by the Convention of Xanten, which confirms the partition of the duchies with Brandenburg. 513. Americsk. The United New Netherland Company is established in Holland, and receives territory at the mouth of the Hudson. 1614] CULTURE 103 750, Art Rubens' Descent from the Gross (Antwerp). 761, Education. By the aid of the Prince of Anhalt-Kothen, Ratke sets up a school at Kothen, where he carries out his principles of follow- ing nature, mastering one thing at a time, studying tiie mother tongue, eliminating the practice of learning by heart. 752, Eng. Ch. At the dictation of Ein^ James, Lady Essex is ri oi 3 declared by a Commission of Bishops, including Andrewes, to be ^ divorced nrom her husband. Immediately after, she marries Carr. Abbot, who refuses to share in the judgment, forfeits the King's favour. The moral prestige of the Church is greatly diminished b^ this episode. 75S, Eng. Lit. Drayton's Polyolbion, a poetical description of Elngland. Browne's Britannia's Pastorals, with Giles and Phineas Fletcher and Wither, carry on the Spenserian tradition. 754. Philology. Erpenius' .^urabic Grammar. 755. Economics. Serra's Causes of Wealth asserts the superiority of manufiictures over agriculture as a source of national wealth and the importance of a large supply of gold and silver. 756. Social. The New Biver, engineered by Sir Hugh Myddelton, enters London. 757. Death. Regnier. 758. Eng. Ch. Busher, a Baptist^ writes a Plea for Liberty of vy^tA Conscience. ^ 759. Oerman Ch. A book entitled Generalreformation der ganzen Welt describes the Rosicrucians, for whom a Confession is drawn up 1615, and of whom an Order is founded. The movement springs from the desire of Andreae, a Lutheran pastor, for a religious revival, but quickly brides up into many branches and becomes connected with alchemy and Caboalism. Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg, issues a Calvinistic Confession, but makes no attempt to enforce it. 760. Asiatic Ch. Jeyasu orders the exile of missionaries and the recantation of native converts. A terrible persecution begins, and after twenty years not a Christian is known to exist in Japan, though a few continue secret adherents. 761. Eng. Lit. Overbury's Characters. 762. Science. Napier invents Logarithms and explains their construc- tion, 1619. The tables are constructed by his friend Brig^ 1617. 763. Philosophy. With the death of Cremonini, the Aristotelians in Italy come to an end. 76Jt. History. Raleigh's History of the World. At the wish of James L, Casaubon criticises Baronius, admitting his sincerity, but exposing his ignorance of Greek and Hebrew and his employment of a large quantity of apocryphal material. 765, Cfeography. John Smith explores the coast of Northern Virginia, and publishes a description with a map. rietro della Valle starts on a journey in Syria, Persia and India. 104 POLITICS L1616 514. En^and. Somerset and his wife (the Countess of Essex) nQi5 are accused and found giulty of poisoning Sir Thomas Overbury. *■ The King spares their lives, but banishes them from Court, where Somerset's pkce is taken by George Villiers. 515. France. The Second Civil War breaks out, Cond^ allying with Bouillon and the Huguenots. The government, unable to resist, makes peace. . i. , . Louis marries Anne, daughter of Philip III., who resigns her claims to the Spanish throne, Philip s son at the same time marrying Louis* sister. The Queen-Mother s policy of union with Spain is thus com- pleted. 516. America. Champlain undertakes an expedition to Lake Huron. 517. Asia. The English defeat a superior Portuguese fleet oflF the Bombay coast at Swally. 518. En^ancL An action is brought against Bishop Neile, to n^iQ whom the King has granted a living in commendam ; but James ^ orders the judges not to give sentence till they have consulted with him. Against this Chief Justice Coke protests and is in consequence dismissed. He is succeeded by Sir Heniy Montague, a thorough-going supporter of the King. Henceforth the prerogative is safe from attack in the courts of law. 519. France. Cond^ is arrested, and Richelieu becomes Secretary of State. 520. America. The cultivation of tobacco is introduced into Virginia. 521. Asia. The Manchoo Tartars invade China, conquer the province of Lao-Tung, 1619, and proclaim their independence, 1620L 522. En^and. Kaleigh, who has been liberated by Buckingham, ri oi » 1616, sails for Guiana, in search of a gold mine, promising the '- King not to molest the dominions of Spain. Negotiations for a Spanish match are formally opened, but are dropped, 1618, on the demand for privileges for English Catholics. 523. France. Concini, whom Louis nas long wished to overthrow, is murdered, and Luynes, the King's favourite, takes his place, the Queen- Mother joining the opposition. Bdam is united to the crown, and the restoration of Catholicism and Church property is decreed. 524. Bohemia. The Bohemian Estates are bribed by promises and threats to recognise Ferdinand of Styria, cousin of Matthias, the pro- spective heir to the Empire, as heir to the throne. 1617] CULTURE 105 766, Ixiah Ch. The first Convocation of the Protestant clergy hqi^ adopts a strictly Galvinistic Confession, drawn up by Ussher. ^ 767, Oerman Ch. Parens, Professor of Theology at Heidelberg, where liberalism has been encouraged by Frederick Iw,, 1592-1610, issues an Irenicon. 768, Spanish Lit. Cervantes' Don Quixote, Part II. 769, Science. Kepler's Nova Stereometria Doliorum investigates the area of surfaces, the capacity of casks, and conic sections, by infini- tesimals. 770, Economics. Montchr^tien, the dramatist, dedicates his Traits de r£conomie Politique to the King and the Queen-Mother, suggested by visits to England and the Netnerlands. The work recommends the mercantilist principles on which Richelieu and Colbert later act 771, Philosophy. Vanini's De Admirandis Naturae Arcanis, a system of naturalistic pantheism, is condemned by the Inquisition. 77fB. Death, rasquier. 77S. Bng. Ch. De Dominis, late Archbishop of Spalatro, pro- riAia fesses himself an Anglican and settles in England, where he is ^ presented with several benefices. Henry Jacob returns from Leyden and collects the scattered Brownists or Independents surviving from 1593 into a congregation at Southwark. 774. French Ch. Francis de Sales' work On the Love of God. 775. Science. Galileo is threatened with punishment unless he under- takes not to teach the Copemican system in future. The views of Copernicus are condemned, having hitherto escaped owing to the preface of Osiander declaring them h^otheticaL 776. Art. Bmiini's Apollo and Daphne (ilome), his first work. 777. Oeography. After several voyages, Baffin discovers and describes Baffin's Bay. 778. Deaths. Cervantes, Shakespere. 779. Church Hist. Cornelius a Lapide's Commentaries begin to ri ai 7 appear. ^ L De Dominis' De Bepublica Ecclesiastica maintains that the Bishops, not the Pope, are head of the Church. 780. Scotch Lit. Drummoud's Forth Feasting, a complimentary address to James on his return to Scotland. 781. German Lit. Die Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft of Weimar, modelled on the Italian societies, renders the formation of literary circles in Germany fashionable. 78B. Philosophy. A collected edition of Fludd's works is published, dealing with medicine, occultism, and Rosicrucianism. 783. Politics. Suarez' De Legibus ac Deo Legislatore declares all power from God, rejects the theory of the Divine right of Kings, and authorises 106 POLITICS [1617 525. Sweden. By the treaty of Stolbovo, GustavuB obtains iDgermann- land and Karelia, and recovers the former rights of Sweden in Livonia. Novgorod and other Swedish conquests in Russia are given up. 526. i^^ca. The Dutch buy the island of Goree from its native rulers. [1618 527. En^andL Raleigh attacks the Spaniards, fails to find gold, and returns to England empty-handed. He is executed on the original charge of treason, but in reality to humour Spain. 528. Germany. ^ Albert II., Duke of Prussia, dies childless, and his dominions are joined to the electorate of Brandenburg, though remaining under Polish suzerainty. 529. Bohemia. Indignant at the anti-national and anti-Protestant policy of the government, the Bohemian nobles, led bv Count Thum, revolt, and hurl the two regents from a window of the palace at Prague, by this act commencmg the Thirty Years' War. Ferdinand despatches troops to subdue the rebels, to whose assistance Mansfeld is sent by^ the Protestant Union. 530. Spam. Lerma, who has alienated the Austrian Hapsburgs by his French proclivities, is dismissed, and Spain prepares to co-operate in the war. 531. Italy. Bedmar, the Spanish ambassador at Venice, concerts with the Oovemors of Milan and Naples a land and sea attack on the Republic, which, however, is quickly discovered. 532. Asia. The Dutch found Batavia in Java. 533. Africa. A British company is chartered to trade with West Africa, and establishes forts on the Gambia and the Gold Coast 534. En^and. Granfield reduces the finances to order. riftio 535. Bohemia. On the death of Matthias, the Bohemians ^^^ depose Ferdinand, who becomes Emperor two days later, and elect Frederick the Elector Palatine. Maximilian of Bavaria and the League declare for Ferdinand. At this moment Bethlen-Gabor declares war and besieges Vienna, but is forced to retreat. James I. refuses to support the aggression of his son-in-law, but sends Doncaster to offer the mediation of England, which is rejected. 536. Holland. Maurice seizes the opportunity presented by the defeat of the Arminians to execute Bameveldt on a charge of treason, and to imprison Grotius and others in the castle of Louvestein. 537. America. The first Colonial Parliament for South Virginia meets at Jamestown. Negro slaves are brought to Virginia. 1619] CULTURE 107 their deposition either by the Church or b^ the people where the con- tract, from which they derive their power, is broken. 784. Deaths. Suarez, De Thou. 786, Eng. Ch. Selden is forced by the High Commission to rj^Q^g recant his utterances on the secular origin of tithes. ^ The King enjoins certain amusements for Sunday afternoon in a Book of Sports, which many clergy refuse to countenance. 786. Scotch Ch. At the General Assembly at Perth, kneeling at Communion, observance of Holy Days, private Communion and Baptism in case of sickness, and episcopal confirmation are enjoined. A new litui]gy is composed by the Bishops and authorised by the King, but is not introducea. 787. French Ch. The Benedictines of St Maur settle in Paris, receive St Germain des Pr^s, and under D' Ach^ry, their first librarian, commence their historical studies. Vincent de Paul founds the order of Sisters of Mercy for the care of the sick. Cameron, a Scotchman, becomes Professor of Theology at Saumur, where he teaches a modified Calvinism (described by opponents as semi- Pela^nism), and forms a school. 788. Spanish Ch. St John of the Cross' Spiritual Works. 789. Dutch Ch. A Synod is held at Dort, at which Deodatus, Scultetus, Breitinger, Hall, Davenant, Hales are present, to close the Arminian controversy. Despite the defence of Episcopius, the Arminians are banished, and the Belgic Confession of 1561 (revised) and the Heidelberg Catechism are confirmed. The five articles of the Remonstrance are rejected, and five Calvinistic canons adopted. Calvinistic Scholasticism is further elaborated by (jfomar, Voetius, and Hoombeck. 790. Church Hist. A Conference for the reunion of Catholics and Protestants is held at Prague. 791. Death. Duperron. 792. French Ch. Vanini is burnt at Toulouse as an ' atheist.' ri gig 793. Church Hist. Scioppius' Classicum Belli Sacri summons the Catholic Princes of the Empire to the annihilation of heretics. 794, Eng. Lit. Ben Jonson visits Drummond at Hawthornden. 795. Science. In his lectures at St Bartholomew's Hospital, Harvey reveals his discovery of the circulation of the bloodi in which he has been aided by the works of his master, Fabricius, Servetus, Columbus, Caesalpinus, and Saipi. Kepler's Harmonia Mundi states his Third Law, that the squares of the periodic times (revolutions round the sun) of the planets are propor- tional to the cubes of their distances from the sun. Decimal notation for fractions is used by Briggs and Napier. 796, History. Sarpi's History of the Council of Trent, based largely on the information supplied by eye-witnesses, is pseudonymously published in England, and fiercely attacked by ultramontane writers. ^ I 108 POLITICS [1620 538. En^and. Owing to rumours of a Squish attack on the r]^Q20 Palatinate, James, who is willing to aid ms son-in-law in self- ^ defence, allows volunteers under Vere to garrison the fortresses. (9. France. The discontented nobles join Mary in an attacl Lujmes; but Richelieu negotiates peace, and the King and his mother 539. France. The discontented nobles join Mary in an attack on King are reconciled. Louis enters B^ajn and roughly enforces the procla- mation of 1617. 540. Bohemia. Frederick is crushed by Tilly and the army of the League at the battle on the White Hill, outside Prague, and expelled from Bohemia, and the Protestant Union is dissolved. The leaders of the Bohemian revolt are executed, the Protestant clergy are expelled, the Jesuits return and Prague University is merged in a Jesuit College, Protestant children are forbidden to inherit land, the towns are de- prived of their charters, the national language is neglected, trade and population decline. Finally, in 1627, the Protestants are expelled. 541. Germany. A Spanish army invades the Lower Palatinate and a Bavarian army the Upper. 542. Italy. Protestants are massacred in the Valtelline (a subject land of the Protestant Orisons League), and an independent republic is pro- claimed, and supported by Spanish and Austrian troops. 543. America. A hundred of Robinson's congregation at Leyden cross the Atlantic in the Mayflower, draw up a Compact of Government, and land at PlymoutL 544. England. Parliament meets and attacks monopolies, which tj^aai . are withdrawn by the King. Sir Giles Mompesson, one of the ^ holders, leaves the country. The Commons impeach and disgrace the Chancellor for accepting sums of money before giving judgment. Bacon admits the chaige, but denies that his decision was thereby influenced. He is degraded and fined and Williams, Dean of Westminster, succeeds him. The Kin^ informs Parliament that he is sending Digby to Vienna to ask Ferdinand to restore the Palatinate, which, however, is now secretly conferred on Maximilian. Parliament deckles that if diplomacy fails, it will defend Frederick, and petitions the King to marry his son to a Protestant. The King rebukes the Commons for their interference. 545. France. Scared by events in B^am and Germany, the Huguenots rebel under Rohan and Soubise. To reassure the moderates, the King confirms the Edict of Nantes, and sends Luynes and Lesdigui^res^ the latter a Huguenot^ to quell the revolt. 546. Holland. The 12 years' truce comes to an end. 547. Netherlands. The Archduke dies, and the direct government of the Netherlands is resumed by Spain. 548. America. Alexander, the Scotch poet, obtains a patent for Acadia^ described as Nova Scotia ; but an attempt at settlement fiaiils. 1621] CfULTURK 109 797, French Ch. The Decrees of Dort are accepted by the n«oft French Protestants at the Synod of Alais. ^^^^ 798,^ Science. Drebbel constructs a thermometer, employing spirits of wina GkJileo has previously filled the bulb with air. Bacon suggests that heat may be a movement 799, Art Rubens is invited to Paris by the Queen-Mother to paint picturesJoT her palace of the Luxembourg, now in the Louvre. 800, Philosophy. Bacon's Novum Organum points out the species and causes of error, and declares experience the starting-point and induction the true method of knowledge. Of a third part, a series of Natural Histories, only fragments are written. A fourth part is designed to supply a knowled^ of the forms underlying phenomena. Campanella's De Sensu Berum, a system of occultist pantheism, deeply influenced by the stud^ of Telesio. 801, Philology. Salmasius issues Gasaubon's Commentary on the Augustan History with additional notes. 802, Death. Stevinus. 80S, Bng. Lit. Robert Burton, of Christ Church, Oxford, r^ggi (writing as Democritus Junior) publishes Ids Anatomy of ^ Melancholy, which he largely alters and increases in subsequent editions. John Barclay's Latin romance, Argenis, of which an mglish version quickly appears. 80X Dntch Lit Constantino Huyghens' Batava Tempo, a poem in praise of the Hague, the most elegant Dutch poem up to this time written. 80S. Science. Snell fa Dutchman) discovers the law of refraction of light, and calculates tne index of refraction for water and other sub- stances. 8(^. Art Inigo Jones desims a magnificent palace at Whitehall in the style of Palladio, of which only the Banqueting Hall is carried out 807. Economics. Mun's Discourse of Trade from England to the East Indies, and England's Treasure by Foreign Trade, first clearly state the l^eory of the ludance of trade, and recommend the attraction of money from abroad. The export of money is permitted where the re-export of the foreign wares that it procures will bring back more than the original price of purchase. The 'Mercantilist' Uieoiy remains virtually un- contested till the close of the century. 808. Death. Bellannine. 110 POLITICS [1622 549. En^ond. ParliameDt is dissolved, its protest being torn nQ22 from the Journals by the King, and Coke, Pym, and Selden are *- imprisoned. Porter is sent to Madrid to arrange a visit from Prince Charles, and to demand Spanish aid for Frederick. Knight's sermons before Oxford University on the right of resistance to rulers, based on Paraeus' Commentary on Romans, is burnt, and the doctrine is condemned by the University. 550. Germany. Bethlen-Gabor makes peace with the Emperor, and Tilly defeats the Margrave of Baden and Christian of Brunswick. Despite the aid sent by James I., the Palatinate is conquered. 551. Spain. Olivarez becomes chief minister. 552. iGnerica. Gorges and Mason obtain a grant of Maine. 553. Asia. English rivalry with Portugal in the East ends with the taking of Ormuz. 554. En^and. Charles and Buckingham visit Madrid to woo rigoo the Infanta, but are informed that she will only be sent to *■ England when religious liberty has been given to the Catholics. The scheme is in the highest degree unpopular with the Spaniards, and after wearisome negotiations they leave Spain, in a rage. The failure of the match is hailed by England with enthusiasm. 555. France. The. Hu^enots are forced to accept the Treaty of Montpellier, which forbids political gatherings and!^ leaves them La Rochelle and Montauban. 556. Germany. Frederick is put to the ban of the Empire, and his Electoral dignity and the Upper Palatinate are given to Maximilian of Bavaria, the Catholics thereby obtaining a majority in the Electoral Diet. John Oeorge of Brandenburg is banned by the Empire, and Jagem- dorf is confiscated by the Emperor. 557. Italy. Venice and Savoy ally to wrest the Valtelline from the Hapsbui^ ; but the troops of the Pope occupy the valley. Urban VIII. becomes rope and, fearing tne Hapsburg supremacy, leans to France. 558. Asia. The English traders at Amboyna are massacred by the Dutch on the charge of conspiring to surprise the garrison. 559. West Indies. English and French settlements are made in St Kitts, and the other Leeward Islands are colonised from thence. 1623] CULTURE 111 809. Eng. Ch. Laud holds a GonfereDce with Fisher, a Jesuit r^^An who has converted Buckinffham's mother. 1-^^^^ De Dominis, hearing wat the Pope is willing to welcome him, renounces his AngUcanism and returns to Rome. 810. Church Hist The Gonffregation De Pronaganda Fide, planned by Gregorjr XIII. , is instituted by Gregory XV. The decrees of the Propaganda are declared to have the force of apostolical constitutions. A ODliege for the education of missionaries is instituted, 1627. 811. Eng. Ut. Butter, a London stationer, publishes the Weekly News. 812. French Lit. Sorel's Histoire Gomique de Francion founds the novel of bourgeois manners. 813. Italian Lit. Tassoni's Secchia Bapita (the Bape of the Bucket) perfects the Comic Epic. Campanella's Sonnets are printed in Oennany by his disciple, Tobias Adami. 814. Science. Asellius discovers the tubes that carry nourishment to the blood, and names them lacteals. 815. History. Bacon's Life of Henry VIL 816. Deaths. Melville, Francis de Sales. 817. Eng. Ch. The King allows a Catholic Bishop in Partibus n q23 in En^laiid, a victoiy for the Seculars over the Jesuits, who fear ^ a dimmution of their authority. 818. French Ch. P^re Garasse's Doctrine Curieuse des Beaux Esprits attacks the creed and conduct of the Libertins. 819. Oennan Ch. Olassius' Philologia Sacra, a Lutheran classic, SVes an impetus to exegetical work, which is continued by Walther, Jov and Pfeiffer. 820. Church Hist. Uriel Acosta, a Portuguese Jew resident in Amster- dam, attacks Judaism, is banned by the Synagogue, and commits suicide, 1647. 821. Asiatic Ch. The Pope authorises the Malabar Bites, i.e., the accommodations practised by Nobili and other Jesuits. 822. Eng. Lit. The First Folio of Shakespere, nominally collected b^ his fellow-actors, Hemin^ and Condell, really by Jaggard and a syndi- cate of publishers, contains all the published plays except Pericles, and classifies them as Histories, Comedies, Tragedies. Webster's Duchess of Malfi. 823. Italian Lit. Marini's Adone, a descriptive poem in the style of Gongora, becomes a model for a century. 824. French Lit. Chapelain writes an elaborate Introduction to a French translation of Marini's Adone. 825. Art Velasquez is invited by Olivarez to settle in Madrid, where he is shortly appointed Court-Painter. 826. Politics. Camnanella's Civitas Solis, a communistic Utopia in the style of Plato and More. 827. Philology. The elder Buxtorf 's Hebrew Grammar commences the seventy years' labour at Semitic languages of father and son. S28, Death. Sarpi. 112 POLITICS [1624 560. En^and. The fourth and last Parliament of James is riQ04 summoned and votes supplies for the recovery of the Palatinate, *■ which Charles and Buckingham persuade the King to undertake. Believing that the Treasurer, Granfield, is opposed to a war, the Commons, encouraged by Charles and Buckingham, impeach him for malversation. Believing, too, that the King wishes a war in Grermany, and themselves desiring a war at sea, the Commons appropriate part of their grant to refit the navy, in addition to supplying Mansfeld with 12,000 men. Parliament is prorogued and a marriage treaty made with France, by which, despite the promise made to the Commons, liberty is granted to the Ehiglish Catholics. Monopolies are finally declared illegaL 561. France. Richelieu, who has received a Cardinal's hat, 1623, becomes supreme. The Council consists henceforward rather of lawyers than of nobles and clergy. 562. Italy. Bichelieu allies with Venice and Savoy, and Swiss and French troops expel Spain from the Valtelline. 563. Sweden. Gustavus Adolphus makes proposals to England in regard to intervention in the war. 564. Amerioa. A Dutch West India Company is formed to drive the Portuguese out of South America. For some years plundering expedi- tions are made, with little attempt at trade or colonisation. 565. En^and. Mansfeld's troops reach Holland without monev ri qqr or provisions, and three-fourths of them soon die. Disgusted with ^ the mismanagement of the war, the new Parliament refuses to grant a larffe sum for the war except to counsellors in whom it has confidence, and is in consequence dissolved. A fleet sent by the King to Cadiz to intercept the Spanish treasure-ships returns without striking a blow. 566. Franoe. A new revolt breaks out under Soubise ana Rohan, owing to the erection of a fort near La Rochelle, but is ended by the defeat of the Huguenot fleet 567. Germany. Tilly and Wallenstein enter Saxony, and the Danish period of the war begins. Christian IV. being Duke of Holstein and nead of the Lower Saxon Circle. 568. Netherlands. Spinola retakes Breda (captured by Maurice 1598), after 11 months' siege. 569. Amerioa. Gorten a merchant of Flemish descent, plants a colony in Barbadoes. 1626] CULTURE 113 8^, Eng. Ch. Monta^, an Anglican rector, replies to a riQ24 Catholic attack on Calvinism in his New Gag for an old Goose, '- recognising the Roman Church as part of the true Church, and author- ising confession, helief in the Real Presence, and similar doctrines. 830. FFench Gh. Vincent de Paul founds the Lazarists or Priests of the Mission for evangelical and charitable work in the rural districts. 8S1. German Lit. Opitz' Buch von der deutschen Poeterey insists on beauty of form, purifies German style, and founds the first Silesian School. 8SB. Science. Van Helmont introduces the term Gas. 833. Philosophy. Lord Herbert's De Veritate introduces Deism into England, and maintains that we have five ' common notions,' namely that God exists, that He should be worshipped, that virtue is a means of worship, that repentance is necessary, and that rewards and punish- ments will follow this life. 834. Philology. Gerard Vossius' De Historicis Graecis. 835. Deaths. Bohme, Mariana. 836. Eng. Ch. In consequence of Abbot's censure on Montagu's ri 005 distinction between Puritan and Anglican principles, Montagu ^ writes Appello Caesarem, for which Parliament impeaches him. Owing in part to Laud, now rising in influence, the King replies by making Montagu his chaplain, and shortly after Bishop of Chichester. Nicholas Ferrar withdraws firom the world and settles with his family at Little Gidding in Huntingdonshire, where he spends his time and devotion in parish work. The community is twice visited by the King, but is broken up by the civil wars. Laud draws up a list of Orthodox and Puritan clergy. 837. Church Hist. At the request of Lutheran friends, Metrophanes, a disciple of Cyril Lucar, draws up a Confession strongly attacking Romanism, but silent in regard to Protestantism. 838. Eng. Lit. Howell's Letters begin. 839. French Lit. Balzac's Letters and Voiture's Letters and Vers de Soci^t^ improve French prose by their dignity and correctness. 840. Dntch Lit. Vondel defends the memory of Bameveldt in his tragedy of Palamedes, which is bitterly attacked by Cats and other Calvinists. Cats' Marriage, and Emblems of Fancy and Love, remain universal favourites for two centuries. 841. Science. De Dominis attempts to explain the rainbow. 84^. Law. Grotius' De Jure B^li et Pacis, based on Oldendorp, Hemming, Winkler, Vittoria, Ayala, Gentilis, and in part suggested by the Thirty Years' War and by the Dutch East India Company, gives a great impetus to the discussion of international law by appealing to natural law as springing from the social nature of man. 843. Geography. Purchas his Pilmms. 844. Deaths. Marini, Maurice of Nassau. G. 8 114 POLITICS [1626 570. En^ond. Charles' second Parliament meets, the King having ^626 chosen the more independent members sheriffs for the year. The *- Commons, however, find a leader in Eliot, who impeaches Buckingham on the charge of lending ships to the French mng to suppress the Huguenots. The King dissolves Parliament without a grant of supplies, and orders a forced loan. 571. France. The Huguenots are accorded the terms of 1623; but Bichelieu resolves to break their political power, and interrupts his war with Spain in Italy by the treaty of Mouzon, without knowledge of his allies. The Valtelline remains subject to the Orisons, though Catholic worship is guaranteed. The nobility and courtiers revolt against the Cardinal and win the king's brother to a scheme to depose him and murder Sichelieu. The plot is discovered, and its authors punished with death or exile. Brittany petitions against the rule of descendants of its ancient dukes, and prays for the destruction of its fortresses. 572. Germany. Tilly routs the Danes at Lutter, and Wallenstein, who raises an army and takes the field for the Emperor, defeats Mansfeld at the bridge of Dessau. Mansfeld and Christian of Brunswick die shortly after. 573. Itoly. The Duchy of Urbino is bequeathed to the Pope by the last of the Rovere, who dies childless. 574. ibnerica. The Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam is made on Manhattan Island. 575. En^and. Discontent is caused by the practice of billeting rioAn and the exaction of forced loans, for refusing which five knight ^ are imprisoned on a royal warrant. The King's prerogative is at the same time magnified by Sibthorp and Mainwaring. 576. France. The Huguenots once more revolt and the sie^e of La Rochelle commences. An expedition under Buckingham &ils to relieve the city. 577. Germany. Wallenstein expels the Danes from Silesia, and over- runs Holstein, Schleswig and Jutland. 578. Italy. The Gonzaga line dies out at Mantua, and Nevers, a French Prince, succeeds. The Emperor, however, claims Mantua as feudal suzerain. 579. Amerloa. The Ouiana Company is chartered; but colonisation does not extend. 580. West Indies. Lord Carlisle obtains the grant of the Caribbean Islands. 581. En^ancL Charles summons his third Parliament, desiring riono money for a second expedition to La Rochelle. Wentworth ^ attacks the government, but retires from the struggle when the King refuses his recommendations, and becomes President of the Council of 1628] CULTURE 115 8Jfi. Irish Ch. A Presbyterian Church is established in Ulster, ri qoq 8J^, French Gh. A work of Sanctarel, reviving the contention ^ of the power of the Pope to depose a King, is disowned by the court Jesuits and burnt. SJfl, American Lit. Sandys' verse translation of Ovid's Meta- morphoses, the first purely literary work undertaken in English America. 8J^. Science. Desai^es lectures on projective geometry, the new method, however, being shortly displaced by the analytical method of Descartes. A Jaidin des Plantes, for students of medicine and the culture of medicinal herbs, is instituted at Paris. 8Jil9, Law. Spelman's Glossary of Law terms. 860, Deaths. Andrewes, Bacon. 861. Eng. Ch. Gosin composes Devotions, of a pronounced T\wm Anglican type, for the ladies of the Court. 1- 862. ^ Dutch Ch. Grotius' De Veritate Religionis Christianae combats the spirit of the French sceptics and attempts to rise above the di£ferences between the Churches. 865. Chnrch Hist. The Bull In Caena Domini excommunicates heretics and schismatics and their defenders, the owners of heretical books, and all who appeal from a Papal decree to a future General Council. Clerics cannot oe taxed or punished without Papal permission. 86J^ Eng. Lit. Bacon's New Atlantis. 866, Spanish Lit. Quevedo's Visions found ' Conceptismo,' or pedantry of the idea, a companion and a contrast to the Culteranismo of Gongora. Tirso's earliest plays carry on the work of Lope, with an added strength and realism. Mendoza's Guerra de Granada. 866, Art. Vouet, after 14 years' residence in Italy, is summoned to the French Court, and revives French painting. Schiitz' Daphne, the first German opera, introduces Italian reforms into German music. 867, History. Petavius' Doctrina Temporum attacks the chronology of Scaliger. 868, Eng. Ch. The Kin^ issues a declaration, composed by nQ28 Laud, forbidding public discussion of predestination and other ^ disputed doctrines. At the same moment Laud is made Bishop of London, and Mainwaring, lately censured by the Commons for his views of the prerogative, receives promotion. By the King's order. Laud edits Andrewes' sermons. 869, French Ch, Daill^'s L'Usage des P^res maintains that the Fathers are of little assistance in the disputes of the day. His work is used by Hales and Chillingworth. 8—2 116 POLITICS [1628 the North. Eliot, Coke, and Selden cany the Petition of Bight, for- bidding martial law, enforced billeting, forced loans or taxes without Parliamentary grant, and imprisonment without cause shown. Buckingham is murdered at Portsmouth when about to embark on a second expedition to La Bochella 582. France. La Bochelle is starred into surrender and dismantled, and the political power of the Huguenots is broken. 583. Germaxiy. Wallenstein attacks the Hanse Towns, but fails to take Stralsund. Oustavus turns from his Polish war to the aid of Denmark. 584. HoUancL The Dutch capture the Spanish silver fleet 585. En^and. Eliot introduces resolutions declaring enemies of qq29 the kingdom those who introduce innovation in religion and those ^ who recommend or pay tonnage and poundage without Parliamentary Snt. The Speaker, who has orders to adjourn the House, is held m while the resolutions are read. Parliament is dissolved, Eliot is sent to the Tower. Personal Government commences, supported by Wentworth, Laud and Weston. France renounces her support of the English Catholics, and England her support of the Huguenots. 586. France. The Huguenots rise for the last time under Rohan and receive subsidies from Spain, but are quickly reduced. 587. Germany. Tilly and the Catholic League refusing to grant Wallenstein's plea for aid. Christian invades Germany, but is defeated by Wallenstein and forced to conclude peace at Lubeck. He receives back his conquered territories, but withdraws from German politics. The Dukes of Mecklenburg are put to the ban, and Wallenstein is invested with their lands. The Edict of Restitution restores property secularised since 1552. The refusal to recognise the Calvinists alienates Saxony and Bran- denburg. 588. Itedy. The War of the Mantuan succession breaks out Spain besieges Casale, which is relieved by France. 589. America. The King grants a charter to the Massachusetts Bay Company and Mason receives New Hampshire. Quebec is captured by England. 590. En^and. Peace is made with Spain. 11630 591. France. Angered by Richelieu's anti-Spanish policy, the ^ Queen-mother heads a plot to overthrow his authority, but fails at l^e Day of Dupes, and flies to Brussels. The Duke of Orleans tdces refuge in Lorraine, and Marillac, one of the Queen-mother's tools, is executecL 592. Germany. The Catholic princes meet at Ratisbon and press for the resignation of Wallenstein. The demand being supported by Father Joseph, whom Richelieu sends to sow discord between ike princes and 1630] CULTURE 117 860, Geiman Ch. Drechsers Meditations supply deyotional liteiature for educated Catholics. 861, Literature. Gjnril Lucar, patriarch of (Tonstantinople, presents the Codex Alezandrinus to Charles I. 862, Science. Harvey publishes his De Motu Cordis et Sanguinis, the tenets of which are accepted by Descartes, Hobbes and other thinkers, but cost the author his practice, and lead him into controversy with Riolan, Professor of Anatomy at Paris. Castelli, a pupil of Galileo, founds hydraulics by his Misura dell' Acque Correnti. Kepler's Rudolphine Tables are published, based on Tycho Brahe's observations. 86S. Art The Arundel marbles reach England. Shah Jehan builds the Taj Mahal at Ag^ 86J^ History. Blondel's False Decretals attack the Pseudo-Isidore. 865. Law. Coke's Institutes, a Commentary on Littleton. 866. Geography. Dutch expeditions reach Western Australia. 867. Death. Malherbe. 868, Eng. Ch. The King issues Instructions, composed by riQ29 Laud, forbidding Puritan 'lecturers' and the employment of ^ chaplains, except by noblemen, and attacking non-resident Bishops. 869, Irish Ch. Bedell becomes Bishop of Eilmore, and helps to reform the Irish ChurcL 870, Church Hist. Cyril Lucar, Patriarch of Constantinople, writes a Calvinistic Confession in Latin, which he hopes may be adopted by and reform the Oreek ChurcL 871, Spanish Lit. The plays of Alarcon, the most polished of Spanish dramatists, are collected. 872, Philosophy. Descartes settles in Holland, only thrice re-visiting France. Mersenne, his old schoolfellow, becomes his literary repre- sentative in Paris. Descartes also corresponds with Elizabeth, daughter of the Elector Palatine. 87S, Philology. Salmasius' Commentary on Solinus. 874. Deaths. B^rulle, Buxtorf (senior), Bethlen Gabor. 875. Eng. Ch. Dr Leighton is imprisoned by the Star Chamber n 53Q for an attack on episcopacy. *- George Herbert becomes Bector of Bemerton. 876, Chnrch Hist. Dury, chaplain to the English merchants at Elbing, begins to travel over Europe with a view to reunion. 877. Danish Lit. Arrebo s Hexameron, modelled on Du Bartas, founds modem Danish literature. 878, American Lit. Winthrop begins to keep a Journal. 118 POLITICS [1630 the Emperor, Ferdinand, who wishes to secure his son's election as King of the Aomans, gives way. Tilly assumes the command of Wallen- stein's army, and the Emperor once more becomes overshadowed by the League. At the same moment, Gustavus crosses to Germany, and is joined by Bernard of Weimar and other petty princes. 593. Italy. Richelieu leads an expedition to Italy, reduces Pinerolo, and occupies Saluzzo. 594. America. Fifteen vessels, bearing over 1,000 colonists, including Winthrop, the governor, reach Massachusetts, and found Boston and other towns. In the next decade they are joined by 20,000 immi- grants. 595. West Indies. The Buccaneers (adventurers of all countries) settle in Tortuga, off Hispaniola, and prey on Spanish commerce throughout the century. 596. Italy. By the Treaty of Gherasco, the Emperor recognises n got Nevers as Duke of Mantua, allows Savoy to ob^n part of the ^ Duchy of Montferrat, and withdraws the Imperial troops from Italy, leavii^ the reward of the Mantuan war to France, which again obtains a footing in Italy. By a secret agreement with the Duke of Savoy, Richelieu obtains the fortress of Pinerolo, which dominates Savoy, and Victor Amadeus marries a sister of the King of France. 597. Germany. Gustavus concludes a subsidy treaty with France, and attempts to win over Saxony and Brandenburg. He succeeds with the latter, but too late to relieve Magdeburg, wmch, after a long siege, is stormed and sacked by Tilly. The Emperor orders an attack on Saxonv, which is thus forced to ally with Gustavus. The two powers rout Tilly at Leipsig, and Gustavus occupies the Rhine principalities. At the Emperor^s urgent entreaty, Walienstein undertakes to collect an army, but he insists on complete control At this moment, he begins to secretly negotiate with the Swedes. 598. HollancL A Spanish fleet sent against the Dutch privateers is destroyed. 599. England. The Treaty of St Germain between France and riaon England cedes New France, Acadia and Canada to France. ^ 600. France. Montmorency, governor of Languedoc, receives Gaston of Orleans in his province and heads a rebellion against Richelieu, by whom it is quickly suppressed. Gaston is pardoned, but Montmorency, the last of the famous family, is executed. 601. Germany. Gustavus advances on Bavaria, defeats and kills Tilly, who attempts to bar the passage of the Lech, and enters Municn. Hoping to create a principality for himself, and perhap^ even to become King of Hungary, Wallenstem attempts to detach Saxony from the 1632] CULTURE 119 S79. Philosophy. Ames' De Gonscientia, inspired by the works of his Cambridge master, Perkins, developes Protestant casuistry in England. 8S0, Philology. Laud founds a Professorslup of Arabic at Oxford, and sends Pococke, the first Professor, to the East to gather manuscripts. 881. SociaL The Earl of Bedford and others undertake to drain the Gambridffeshire marshes, the work being directed by Sir Cornelius Vermuycfen. 88fS. Deaths. D'Aubigntf, Harvey, Kepler. 88S. Frenoh Cli. Amyraut, Professor of Theology at Saumur, moq]^ is ordered by the Protestant synod to inform the King of the *- infringements of the Edict of Nantes, and enforces his right to address the King standing, like the Catholic dei)uties. 884. German Gn. An attempt to unite Lutherans and Calvinists is made at Leipsig by Hesse, Brandenburg and Saxony. 885. Ghnroh Mist. A women's Order, founded by Mary Ward, on the model of the Jesuits, is dissolved by the Pope on account of its lax discipline. 886. Frenoh Lit. Renaudot founds the Gazette de France, which becomes the organ of the Oovemment, and which he edits for more than 20 years. 887. Art. Rembrandt's Lesson in Anatomy. (The Hague.) 888. Ednoation. Comenius' Janua Quatuor Linguarum Keserata ex- plains his system of learning Latin, Italian, French and German, but overestimates the acquisitive power of the mind. 889. Social. Spee attacks the belief in witchcraft, which is defended by Garpzov and others. 890. Death. Richer. 891. Eng. Lit. Falkland takes up his residence at Great Tew, r, ggo near Oxford, and gathers round him a circle, including Hales, ^ Ghillingworth, Hammond, Morley, Sheldon, Clarendon, Selden, Carew, Suckling, Davenant, Waller. 89^. French Lit. Gomberville's Polexandre (a work of 6,000 pages) founds the school of Romans de longue Haleine, continued by CalprenMe's Cassandra and Mile Scuddry's Ibrahim and Grand Cyrus. This genre forms a transition from the romances of chivahy to the novel of society, and dominates French literature till Boileau. 89S, Art. Van Dyck, a favourite pupil of Rubens, settles in England on Charles' invitation as Court painter. 120 POLITICS [1632 Swedes. Gustavus, however, joins the Elector and defeats Wallenstein at Lutzen, where the Swedish King loses his life. 602. Holland. The Dutch take Maestricht, and Spain negotiates for peace. 603. SwedexL Christina, the daughter of Gustavus, succeeds to the throne under the regency of Oxenstiem. 604. America. Maryland, the northern part of South Virginia^ is colonised by Lord Baltimore, a Catholic, who is allowed to tax and legislate only with the consent of the adult males, at first directly, later by representatives. 605. west Indies. English Colonies are planted in Antigua and Mont- serrat. 606. En^and. The City of London's property in Ulster is con- n qqq fiscated on a charge of mismanagement, and alleged encroach- *- ments on the royal forests are recovered. 607. Scotland. Charles entrusts the selection of the Lords of the Articles to the Bishops. 608. Ireland. Wentworth lands in Ireland as Lord Deputy, and sum- mons a Parliament, equally balanced between the two Churches, from which he obtains a grant rendering him independent. He reforms the civil service and the army, introduces flax, and raises Ireland to un- precedented material prosperity. 609. Germany. Wallenstein's negotiations with Saxony for a general peace, on the basis of a revocation of the Edict of Restitution, are dis- allowed at Vienna. He thereupon expels the Swedes from Silesia, but is checked by Bernard of Weimar's capture of Ratisbon. Oxenstiem persuades several of the South German states to join Sweden in the Convention of Heilbronn. 610. Netherlands. The Infanta Isabella dies, and after the failure of a revolt, the Spanish provinces are governed directly from Spain. The States-General do not meet again tul 1790. 611. En^and. The King, on the advice of Attomey-Greneral 1-1034 Noy, persuades London and other port towns to furnish ships, ^ on the pretext of defence against piracy. Prynne's ears are cut o£f for mdirectly attacking the Queen in his Histriomastix. 612. Franoe. Richelieu centralises the administration of the country by appointing Intendants. 613. uermany. The Emperor deserts Wallenstein, who is declared a traitor and assassinated. His army passes to the Emperor's son. 1634] CULTURE 121 S94* Archaeology, Bosio publishes the result of many years' explora- tions in the Catacombs in his Roma Sotteranea. 595. Scienoe. Ghdileo's Systems of the World (a dialogue between a doubter, a Ptolemaic, and a Gopemican) is licensed at Florence and Borne, but examined by the Inquisition, which summons him to Bome (1633), compels him to recant his Gopemican utterances, and confines him to his home. 596. Politics. Lebret's La Souverainet^ du Boy openly recommends absolutism. 597. Edncation. Gustavus Adolphus founds an University at Dorpat. 598. Death. Eliot 899. Eng. Ch. Laud becomes Archbishop of Canterbury, re- ri aqq publishes the Instructions of 1629 and the Book of Sports, moves ^ the Communion table to the chancel and increases ritual. His efforts are assisted by Wren of Norwich and other Bishops in their visitations. The Baptist Community is divided into Particular and General. 900. Bcotcn Ch. Charles visits Edinburgh with Laud to be crowned, and orders the Scotch Bishops to prepare a Liturgy. 901. American Ch. Cotton and Hooker arrive in Massachusetts and obtain almost absolute power in temporal and spiritual matters. 90iB, Church Hist. Scioppius' Anatomia Societatis Jesu reveals certain of the secrets of the Order. 903. Eng. Lit. Herbert's The Temple initiates the ' Metaphysical School' (based largely on Donne), which is developed by Quarles, Crashaw, and Vau^utn. Massinffer's New Way to Pay Old Debts. With Ford and Shirley Massinger forms the third generation of English dramatists. 904. Spanish Lit. The first collection is made of Calderon's plays. 905. Philosophy. La Mothe le Vayer's Dialogues of Orasius Tubero develope the scepticism of Montaigne and Charron. His Virtue of the Heathen attacks the Jansenist contention that the virtues of the heathen were vices. 906. Philology. The second Elzevir edition of the N.T. (called the Textus Beceptus), based on the text of Stephanus and Beza. Morin's De Sinceritate Hebraei Graecique Teztus compares and criticises the texts. 907. Social. The Lancashire witches are tried. 908. Death. George Herbert. 909. Eng. Ch. Father Davenport, chaplain to the Queen, naoA declares that the 39 Articles are not contrary to Boman doc- ^ trine. Father Leander, an English Benedictine, and Panzani, an Oratorian, are sent by the Pope, with the sanction of the King, to investigate the position 01 the English Catholics and the English ChurcL llieir report IS favourable; but the idea of reunion falls through, owing to the opposition of the Jesuits and the Puritans. 122 POUTics [1634 Ferdinand, who is joined by Spanish troops from Italy, advances to the relief of Bavaria, and routs Bernard of Weimar and Horn at Nordlingen. The whole of South Germany is saved for the Church and Empire. At this point France succeeds Sweden as protector of the Protestants, and a French army enters the Palatinate. 614. West Indies. The Dutch take the island of Cura^oa, which becomes the headquarters of contraband trade with the Spanish main- land. 615. England. The King extends his demand for ship-money moor to the iidand counties, thus creating a fleet independent of the i'''^^^ mercantile marine. 616. Ireland. Wentworth claims for the King the province of Connaught, and invites settlers from England. 617. TrSnoe, Richelieu declares war against Spain, which attacks the Elector of Treves. At the same moment he renews the alliance with Sweden and makes the League of Rivoli with the Dutch, Savoy, Mantua and Parma. 618. Italy. B4)han occupies the Orisons. 619. Germany. Saxony withdraws from the war by the Treaty of Prague, which is accepted by Brandenburg and most Lutheran States. The Emperor limits the Edict of Restitution to 1627, and cedes Lusatia to Saxony as a fief of Bohemia. The war at this point ceases to be religious and becomes a struggle of French and Swedes against the Hapsburgs for territory. 620. Amerioa. Discontented with the system of government in Massa- chusetts, a number of settlers migrate to the Connecticut Valley, obtained by Lord^ Brooke and Lord Saye and Sole, in whose honour the fort of Saybrook is erected. 621. West Indies. The French occupy Martinique and Quadeloupe. 622. Asia. The Dutch occupy Formosa. 623. Franoe. Spanish and Austrian invasions are repulsed ; but ri qqo no decisive battle occurs. L*^^" 624. Holland. The Dutch recapture Breda, the last stronghold held by Spain. 625. Germany. Oxenstiem retires to Sweden, but Baner defeats an army of Imperialists and Saxons at Wittstock 1636] CULTURE 123 910. Frenoh Ch. Amyranlt's La PrMestination, supporting the theory of univerftal atonement, is defended by Daill^ and Blondel, and attacked by Pierre Dumoalin, Spanheim and Kivet A schism in the Protestant Church is, however, avoided. Urbain Orandier is burnt for sorcery by Richelieu. 911. Eng. Lit. Milton's Gomus is acted at Ludlow Castle. 912. Philosophy. Sanderson's Cases of Conscience. 91S. AMcan Ch. The Jesuit mission in Abyssinia, which has obtained considerable influence^ collapses and is never renewed. 914. Death. Coke. 916. Eng. Ch. To prevent the emigration of Puritan ministers, ri aqr an ordinance forbids any to leave the country but soldiers, ^ sailors, or merchants. Many, nevertheless, escape to America. Laud begins his Visitation. 916. Scotch Ch. Diocesan Courts are established. 917. French Ch. Petrus Aurelius probably St Gyran) defends the Gallican view of the rights of bishops against the Jesuits. 918. French Lit. A society of literary men, meeting weekly at the house of Conrart since 1629 for discussion and criticism of each other's works, is transformed by Richelieu, who is connected with the group tkrough Chapelain, into the Academic Fran9aise. Conrart becomes its first secretary, and, on Chapelain's persuasion, the Academy resolves to compile a Dictionary. 919. Science. Cavalieri invents the principle of indivisibles, and applies it to the quadrature of curves and sur£aices and the determination of volumes. The method replaces that of exhaustions, and is employed for half a century, when it is superseded by the integral calculus. 920. Law. Selden replies to Orotius' plea for an open sea in his Mare dausum. 921. Deaths. Champlain, Lope de Vega. 922. Eng. Ch. Hales' Tract on Schism pleads for the toleration r^^^ of theological differences, and founds English latitudinarianism. ^ 92S. French Ch. St C^an, the life-long friend of Jansen, becomes director of Port Royal and introduces Jansenism, i.e. ultra- Augustinian- ism, into France. 924. American Ch. In conseg[uence of his separatist opinions, his attack on the Charter, and his opposition to oaths, Roger W illiams is banished from Massachusetts ana founds the tovm of Providence, on land which he buys from the Indians. Absolute religious liberty and complete separation of Church and State are here first carried out. He becomes a Baptist (1638), but renounces his re-baptism and becomes a 'Seeker.' 925. French Lit. Comeille's Le Cid, suggested by a play of De Castro, is referred by Richelieu to a committee of tiie Academy, which reports adversely to it Henceforward the Academy ceases to issue reports. 124 POLITICS [1637 626. En^and. The Judges are consulted by the King in refer- ri 037 ence to ship-money, and 10 out of 12 report that the King may ^ enforce it if the kingdom appears to be in danger. Hampden deter- mines to reassert the validity of the Petition of Kight, and refuses 20/- levied for ship-money. Of the 12 judges, five pronounce for him and seven against. The levy is continued, but the arguments of Hampden's counsel are widely circulated. Prynne, Bastwick and Burton are heavily punished for attacks on episcopacy, and Bishop Williams is disgraced. 627. France. Artois is conquered (1637-40). A revolt of the Croquants in Guienne leads to the abolition of the privileges of the Province. The same fate befalls Normandy, 1639. 628. Italy. Bohan is forced to retire from the Orisons. 629. America. The Pequods are exterminated by Mason, after five years of incursions. Maurice of Nassau becomes Governor-General of the Dutch posses- sions in South America, suppresses piracy, builds forts, and developes trade. He fails, however, to conciliate the natives. 630. Aftica. Maurice of Nassau despatches a force which captures Elmina and expels the Portuguese from the Gold Coast. French traders from Dieppe found the Fort of St Louis, at the mouth of the Senegal 631. Scotland. The Tables draw up a Covenant, the subscribers ri aqo of which pledge themselves to remove the recent innovations. '- Hamilton is sent to revoke the Prayer-book and sanction the Covenant. The General Assembly is dissolved by Hamilton, but continues its session, and, under the leadership of Alexander Henderson, abolishes Episcopacy and restores the Presbyterian system. 632. France. The birth of an heir destroys the hope of the Duke of Orleans. 633. Germany. Bernard of Weimar seizes Breisach, the chief fortress of Elsass. At the same moment, Turenne defeats the Duke of Lorraine, and the French fleet is victorious in the Mediterranean. 634. America. The heads of the Connecticut settlements, aided by Hooker, draw up the Fundamental Orders, perhaps the first written constitution, resembling that of Massachusetts, though establishing no religious qualification. Davenport, a minister silenced hj Laud, and Eaton, a parishioner, found a settlement in New Haven, in the government of which only Church members share. Rhode Island is bought from the Indians and colonised by refugees from Massachusetts. Swedes and Finns found a fort on the Delaware and call their settle- ment New Sweden. The colony is annexed to New Netherlands, 1655. 635. Africa. France t^es Reunion, cidled Isle de Bourbon. 1638] CULTURE 125 926. Edncation. A college is founded by Harvard, a minister of Gharlestown, but remains for a time a seminary for clei^. Laud's Statutes transfer the government oi Oxford University to the Heads of Houses. 9i^. Scotch Ch. The use of the new liturcy in St Giles' r^gg^ Church, Edinburgh, leads to a riot and to the formation of ^ a Committee called the Tables. 928. Eng. Ch. Chillinfi^worth replies to Enott, a Jesuit, in his Religion of Protestants a Safe Way of Salvation, discussing fiilly the meaning of Protestantism and enforcing its lo^cal corollary of Toleration. 929. American Ch. Mrs Hutchmson introduces mystical antinomian- ism into Massachusetts, and receives sympathy from Vane, at this time Governor. She is expelled by his successor, Winthrop, and is welcomed by Roger Williams to Providence. 930. Eng. Lit, Milton's Lycidas. 931. Philosophy. Descartes discusses the grounds of certainty in his Discours sur la M^thode pour bien conduire la Raison et chercher la V^rit^ dans les Sciences. His ideas are spread by Clerselier, Mersenne, Rohault, Rdgis and the Logic of Port Roval in France, and by Geulincx, Renery and Le Roi in the Netherlands. Voetius, Huet and others attack the new philosophy as tending to atheism. 932. Science. In an appendix to his Discours, Descartes publishes his G^metrie, which by the adoption of the analytical method ushers in the period of modern mathematics. Fermat independently reaches similar principles. In a second appendix. La Dioptrique, Descartes states the law of refraction, taken £rom Snell. ^ In a third appendix, Les M^t^ores, Descartes partially explains the rainbow, though ignorant of the unequal refrangibility of different rays. 933. Death. Ben Jonson. 934* Eng. Ch. Joseph Mede's Clavis Apocalyptica extracts an ^533 elaborate Millenarianism from the Prophets. i- 935. French Ch. St Cyran is imprisoned by Richelieu, who dislikes him for refusing his offers and for aiding Jansen in his attack on the Protestant alliance. While at Vincennes, St Cyran obtains influence over Amauld, Lancelot, Singlin, and De Sacy, and sends Lemaltre to represent him at Port Royal. The brothers Dupuy compile Preuves des Libert^s de I'Eglise Galli- cane, at the instance of xUcheueu. A reply by * Optatus Gallus' is burnt. 936. PoHah Ch. The school of Racov is closed by the Jesuits. 937. Church Hist. Cyril Lucar is murdered b]r the Sultan, at the instigation of his opponents, and his teaching is anathematised by a Council at Constantinople. 938. Eng. Lit. Milton sets out on his Italian journey. 939. Science. Horrocks applies the elliptical theory to the moon. Galileo's Mathematical Discourses and Demonstrations, the first dynamical investigations of the laws of falling bodies. 940. Deaths. Jansen, Father Joseph. 126 POLITICS ' [1639 636. Scotland. Charles marches north to punish the Scots for n gog the refusal of the General Assembly to dissolve, but is confronted ^ by an army under Leslie, supported by French money, before which his own troops melt away. The First Bishops' War is concluded by the Treaty of Berwick, by which the Scotch army is to be disbanded and Parliaments are to be regularly summoned. Parliament meets at Edinburgh ; but the King orders its adjournment and prepares for a new attack. 637. En^and. Wentworth is made Earl of Strafford, becomes the King's chief adviser, and advises the summoning of a Parliament. 638. Germany. On the death of Bernard of Weimar, his army passes with Elsass, his latest conquest, to France. 639. Holland. Spain's last Armada, under Oj^uendo, is annihilated in the Channel by Tromp, the English fleet remaining neutral. 640. Savoy. Victor Amadeus I. dies, and his wife, Maria Christina, assumes the regency, with French support. Her brothers-in-law, desiring a share of power, ally with Spain and seize Turin with Spanish troops. A French army comes to the rescue (1640), and recaptures Turin, in 1642, the regency question is compromised, and the civil war ends. 641. Asia. The English East India Company buys land on which it builds Madras, its first territorial possession in India. 642. England. A Parliament meets, but is dissolved after three ri 040 weeks for opposing the Scotch war. The King marches to meet ^ the Scots, who deieat part of his army at Newbum-on-Tyne, on which a truce is made at Bipon. Charles cialls a Council of Peers to York, who urge him to summon another Parliament. The Long Parliament meets (Nov.), impeaches Laud and Strafford, releases and compensates the political prisoners, and nullifies the recent canons. The King yields everything to gain money with which to pay the Scots. 643. Germany. The Great Elector succeeds to Brandenburg, and makes a truce with Sweden. 644. Spain. Exasperated by Olivarez' attempts to crush its ancient liberties, Catalonia revolts, allies with France, and remains partially independent for 16 years. 645. Portugal. The Portuguese, encouraged by the Catalonian revolt, proclaim John of Braganza John IV. An alliance is made with France ; and the new King is recognised by the colonies, though Spain retains Ceuta and Tetuan. 646. West Indies. The manufacture of sugar is introduced into Barbados from Brazil, and becomes the staple industry of the West Indies. 647. Asia. The Dutch destroy Malacca^ the Portuguese rival of Batavia. 1640] CULTURE 127 94J. Eng. Ch. Wroth, Erbery, and Cradock, Welsh clergymen, r^ggo are deprived of their livings, set up Independent Churches, and ^ organise Welsh Nonconformity. 942. Scotch Ch. The General Assembly passes the ' Barrier Act,' for- bidding changes in the laws of the Church till ratified by provincial Synods and Presbyteries. 948. Amexican Lit. The first Printing-Press is established. 944* Science. Horrocks first observes the transit of Venus. 94s, History. Ussher's Antiquitates Ecclesiae Britannicae. I^lman's Councils, Laws and Constitutions of the English Church. 946. Philology. John Buxtorf's Lexicon chaldaeum, rabbinicum, tal- mudicum. 947. Geography. Father Cristoval de Acufia ascends the Amazon and writes the first adequate description of it. 948. Death. Campanella. 949, Eng. Ch. Henderson, Baillie and Gillespie arrive in London ri o^q and exert great influence by their preaching. ^ Convocation continues to sit after the dissolution of the Short Parliament and makes Canons, among them a new oath for the clergy, accepting the government of the Church by Bishops, ' et cetera.' Tms becomes the object of violent criticism, and Lambeth Palace is attacked. At the meeting of the Long Parliament, a Committee for Beligion is instituted. A sub-committee is formed, under the presidency of White, to deal with ' scandalous ministers.' A selection of cases that come before it is published as 'The First Century of Scandalous Ministers,' and many deprivations are made. Millenarian doctrines begin to appear, and are attacked by Bishop HaU. 950. Eng. Lit. Isaac Walton's Life of Donne. 961. Netherlands Ch. Jansen's Augustinus is published posthu- mously, and, despite the Pope's command to avoid discussion, circulates widely. 952. Art. Poussin becomes First Painter in Ordinary to the King of France, and produces the Labours of Hercules, the Last Supper, the Triumph of T^th (Paris). 953. History. Selden's De Jure Naturali juxta Hebraeos, with his Uxor Hebraica, aids Pococke and Lightfoot to reconstruct Jewish life. 954. Politics. Selden maintains that Natural Law was supernaturally revealed to the first human beings and handed down to us. Gampanella's De Monarchia Bispanica claims universal dominion for Spain. 955. Education. Dr Busby becomes Headmaster of Westminster School, and occupies the post for fifty-five years. 966. Death. Rubens. 128 POLITICS [1641 648. En^and. A triennial Act is passed, by which Parliament rio^i is to meet eveiy tliree years, and to sit not less than 50 days. ^ Strafford's impeachment is turned into an attainder when it is found that he is not reached by the statute of Edward III., and the Lords pass the bill on Pym's discovery of the plot of the Queen to bring up the army from the North and of the King to seize the Tower. Qiarles is frightened into signing the death-warrant, and agrees that the Parlia- ment shall not be aojoumed or dissolved without its own consent. Parliament abolishes the Star Chamber and High Commission Courts, and declares ship-money and distraint of knighthood illegal Charles goes to Scotland, professedly to assent in person to the abolition of Episcopacy, but, in the belief of the Commons, to raise an army, and attempts to arrest Argyle and Hamilton. The Orand Remonstrance, nevertheless, claiming ministerial responsibility, only obtains a majority of 11, and a protest is drawn up by the minonty. The King thus finds a party created for him, led by Falkland and Hyde. Twelve Bishops, who have been mobbed and have signed a protest against all done in their absence, are impeached. 649. Ireland. Fearing a fresh influx of colonists and renewed persecu- tion, the native Irish massacre some thousands of English and Scotch in Ulster. 650. France. The King demands the registration of Boyal Edicts by the Parliament of Paris without discussion. 651. Italy. Urban VIII.'s relatives, the Barberini, quarrel with the Famesi, and the Pope is induced to claim the duchy oi Castro. Parma is joined by Venice, Tuscany and Modena ; but Castro is conquered by Urban's successor, Innocent X. 652. Holland. Princess Mary of England marries William, the eldest son of Frederick Henry. 653. America. The Body of Liberties, the first New England code of laws, is drawn up by Massachusetts. 664. En^and. The King, believing that the leaders of the [iq^ Opposition invited the Scots to invade England in 1640, im- '- peaches Pym, Hampden, Holies, Hazlerigg and Strode (Jan. 3), and comes to the House with 500 armed men to seize them (Jan. 4). The five members escape to the city, and the King leaves London (Jan. 10), the Queen going to Holland to raise money. Parliament tails to obtain the control of the militia, and Hotham refuses to allow the King to enter Hull to obtain arms (April). From this point both sides begin to raise forces, and the King's party leaves Westminster. Nineteen Propositions sent by the Commons are rejected by the King (June). Negociations cease, and Essex is appointed Commander, money being raised by tonnage and poundage, and by a tax on property and income. The King raises his standi^ at Nottingham (Aug. 22), and receives the support of the greater part of the north-west of the kingdom. An indecisive battle is fought at Edgehill (Oct.), after which 1642] OULTUBE 129 967, Eng^ Ch. The Commons despatch Commissioners to destroy n 041 relics of idolatij in the churches. Hall's Remonstrance in favour ^ of Episcopacy is answered by five Presbyterian divines (Smectymnuus), and Ussher, Falkland, Jeremy Taylor, and Milton join in the con- troversy. The Commons pass the Root and Branch Bill for the abolition of episcopacy, and for the transference of the jurisdiction to committees of laymen in each diocese. 958. French Ch. De Marca's Concordia Sacerdotii et Imperii, pro- pounding a moderate GhJlicanism, is censured at Rome. 969. German Ch. The Weimar or Ernestine Exposition, inspired by Ernest of Saxe-6otha^ and composed by Gerhard, aids in the evangelical revival. 960. Science. Th^ophraste Renaudot announces his intention to render medical aid without payment, and is violently attacked by Guy Patin and the Faculty of Medicine, and in 1644 is forbidden to practise. 961. Philosophy. Descartes' Meditationes reply to criticisms of the Discours sur la M^thode by Hobbes, Amauld, and Gassendi. 962. Art. Dobson becomes the first English Court painter. 968, Politics. Harry Marten, in conversation with Clarendon, gives utterance to the first republican sentiments recorded in England. 96J^ History. Naud6 maintains that the De Imitatione Christi was written by Thomas h, Eempis. The Benedictines of St Maur, on the other hand, ascribe it to Gersen, a Benedictine. 965. Deaths. Sully, Vandyck. 966. Eng. Ch. The Root and Branch Bill is revived and r^^^g carried owin^ to the departure of most of the royalisst members ^ from Westmmster, and, after 4 months' dela^, is adopted by the Lords. Its provisions, however, are not to come mto operation for a year, presumably to give time for an accommodation with the King. A Committee for Plundered Ministers is appointed to provide for Puritan clergy ejected or plundered by the royal forces, and for their transference to vacant benefices. The work of sequestration is also carried on by local committees. Ussher's edition of Ignatius declares nine epistles spurious and the other six partially interpolated. Sir Thomas Brown's Religio Medici, a latitudinarian if not Unitarian confession. 967. French Ch. Olier founds the Seminary of St Sulpice, at Paris. 968. Church Hist. Grotius' Eirenicon, Via ad Pacem Ecclesiasticam earns for him the name of Grotius Papizans> and is hotly attacked by Rivetus and others. 969. Eng. Lit. Stage plays are forbidden by Parliament. 970. French Lit* Naud^ becomes librarian to Mazarin and creates the Mazarin library. G. 9 130 POLITICS [1612 the King pushes on to London ; but, meeting the trained bands at Turnham Green, retires to Oxford for the winter. 655. Ireland. The Catholic nobles choose a Council, hold an Assembly at Kilkenny, and petition Charles for the redress of grievances. 656. Prance. Cinq-Mars, a favourite introduced by Richelieu, plots to supplant the Cardinal, who obtains evidence of his correspondence with Spain. Orleans betrays his associates, and Cinq-Mars and De Thou are executed. The Cardinal's death follows (Dec.). Koussillon submits to France. 657. Germany. Torstenson defeats the Imperialists under Piccolomini at the second battle of Leipsig, and threatens the hereditary estates of the Emperor. These successes arouse the hostility of Denmark. 658. Portugal. The Spaniards invade Portugal, but are defeated at Montijo. 659. America. Maisonneuve takes possession of Montreal. 660. Africa. The French Compagnie de TOrient is formed to colonise Madagascar. 661. England. The Kins plans that three armies, led by [1043 Hopton, Newcastle, and himself, shall converge on London. ^ Hampden is slain at Chalgrove Field, Hopton defeats Waller at Round- way Down, Rupert storms Bristol, Newcastle defeats Fairfax in York- shire, and the King besieges Gloucester. The London trained bands under Essex march to its relief, the siege is raised, and the tide is turned. After a fierce but indecisive battle at Newbuiy, where Falkland is slain, Charles retires to Oxford for the winter. Meanwhile a better army is being formed h^ the Eastern Association, under the direction of ftomwell. The royafist successes, however, determine Pym to ask aid of the Scots, and the younger Vane is sent to Edinburgh. The Solemn League and Covenant is accepted by Parliament (Sept), and imnosed on the nation. 662. Ireland. Ormond is directed by the King to make peace (The Cessation) with the Catholics. 663. Prance. The King dies, but his widow, who becomes Regent, retains Mazarin, despite ner Spanish predilections. The 3roung nobles, nicknamed the In^ortants, are disappointed, and plot with Seaufort, a descendant of Henry IV., but are quickly suppressed. Beaufort is imprisoned, Mme de Chevreuse is exiled, and Mazarin's rule remains undisputed for five years. Cond^ defeats the Spaniards at Rocroy, but the French are routed at Dutlingen by an Austro-Bavarian army. 664. Germany. Negociations begin in Munster-Osnabriick, but come to nothing, as the Emperor desires to retain Elsass. 665. Denmark. Torstenson marches rapidly north, conquers Holstein and Schleswig, and invades Jutland. 666. America. Roger Williams obtains a patent of Incorporation of Providence Plantations, permitting the settlements on Narragansett Bay to form a federation. 1643] CULTURE 131 971, Politica. Bishop Biamhall attacks the prevalent exaltation of Nature over positive law, and points oat the danger involved in the ideas of Parker and oti^er Parliamentary writers. 972. History. Hooft publishes his History of the Dutch War of Inde- pendence. 97S. Geography. Tasman is sent from Batavia by Van Diemen, Governor of the Dutch East India Company, and discovers Tasmania and New Zealand, which are not visited again till the time of Cook. 974. Deaths. Galileo, Guide Beni. 976, Eng. Ch. An Assembly of divines is summoned by Parlia- ri 043 ment to Westminster. Episcopalians are invited, but do not ^ appear, and the Presbyterians possess a large majority. The first fifteen Articles are revised; but few alterations are made. On the arrival of the Scotch Commissioners the Covenant is laid before the Assembly and accepted. Many of the clergy, however, throughout the country reject it. Saltmarsh, Dell, and other 'Antinomians' make their appearance and cause the Westminster Assembly grave anxiety. Thougn some- times called Anabaptists, few of them are members of the Baptist Churches. 976. French Ch. Amauld's De la fir^uente Communion, disapproving constant and unprepared communion, leads to the first Jesuit attack on Port Royal, but is approved by the Pope and Inquisition and brings many penitents to Port Koyal. A Bull is issued, condemning Jansenism, but is attacked by Amauld, and is not recognised by the Sorbonne. 977. Netherlands Ch. BoUand, a Jesuit of Antwerp, commences a collection of the Acta Sanctorum, aided by Papebroch. (This work is stiU in progress.) 978. Church Hist Mogilas' Orthodox Confession, attacking Catholics and the followers of Lucar, is approved by a synod at Jassy, and becomes the creed of the whole Eastern Church. 979. Eng. Lit. Birkenhead's newspaper, Mercurius Aulicus, and Need- ham[s Mercurius Britannicus, champion respectively the royal and the Parliamentaiy causa 980. Science. TorriceUi finds that the changes of atmospheric pressure vary with its rarity, and invents the Barometer. The discovery is con- firmed by Pascal's experiment on the Puy de D6me, 1648. 981. Art Teniers' Pilgrims. National Gallery.) 982. Philosophy. Gassendi's Disquisitiones Anti-Cartesianae attacks Descartes' criterion of certainty. 983. PoliticB. Prynne's Sovereign Power of Parliament contends for constitutional mouarchy. 984. Law. Conrin^'s De Origine Juris Germanici founds the study of German law on a historical basis. 986. History. M^zerai's History of France. 9-2 132 POLITICS [1648 For purposes of defence, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Plymouth and New Haven form a loose confederation. Massachusetts omits the allegiance clause in the magistrates' oath, and politely refuses the offer of Parliament to pass any legislation required* 667. En^and. 20,000 Scots, under Leslie, enter England, and na^ the control of the armies is entrusted to a Committee of both *- kingdoms. Rupert and Newcastle are routed by Leslie, Fairfax, Man- chester (Lord Aimbolton), and Cromwell at Marston Moor (July). Waller's army, however, melts away, and Essex capitulates to Charles in Cornwall. A second battle at Newbury (Oct.) proves indecisive, owing to Manchester's and Waller's slackness in pursuit. Cromwell hereupon attacks Manchester, introduces a Self-denying Ordinance, excluding members of Parliament from command, and determines to organize a New Model Army. 668. Scotland. Montrose takes arms for the King, raises Highland troops, and captures Perth. 669. Germany. Condd turns to aid Turenne lu^ainst Austria and Bavaria, and wins the Rhineland by the battle of Freiburg. 670. Sweden. Christina begins to govern in person. 671. America. Maurice of Nassau is recalled from South America. In 1645, the Portuguese colonists in the Dutch captainships throw off the Dutch yoke, and by 1655 not an acre of ground remains in Dutch hands. 672. Asia. The Manchus are invited by the Emperor of China to aid in suppressing a rebellion, but seize Peldn, depose the last sovereign of the Ming dynasty, which has reigned since 1368, and establish that of the Manchus. 673. En^and. Negociations are opened with the King at Ux- noAR bridge, but broken off affcer three weeks, Charles refusing to ^ establUi Presbyterianism or to allow Parliament entire control of appointments. The Self-denying^ Ordinance is carried, Essex, Man- chester, and Waller resign, and Fairfax becomes Oeneral of the New Model, the soldiers of which receive re^ar pay. Cromwell is exempted from the Ordinance and becomes Lieutenant-GreneraL Fair&x and Cromwell defeat the King at Naseby, despite Prince Rupert's victorious attack on the left wing under Ireton (June). Letters shewing the King's persistent attempts to introduce a foreign army are taken and published. The war drags on until Fairfieix forces Rupert to surrender m Bristol Montrose, who has won several battles, is routed at Philip- haugh (Sept.). 1646] CULTURE 133 986. Social. Milton begins his series of tracts on marriage, sugj^ested by his personal experience, and contends that incompatibility of tem- perament justifies divorce. 987, Deaths^ GhiUingworth, St Gyran, Episcopius, Fjrm. 988. Eng. Church. The Westminster Assembly agree to a r^g^ Directory of Public Worship, differing but slightly from that of >- Gartwright and Travers. Whichcote becomes Provost of King's College, Cambridge, and by his sermons inaugurates the movement, neither Puritan nor Anglican, of the Cambridge Platonists, the chief of whom, except More, are members of Emmanuel College and influenced by Tuckney, first Tutor, later Master. In the same year John Smith becomes Fellow of Queens' and preaches his Discourses, and Cudworth becomes Master of dare, and Ke^us Professor of Hebrew. Henry More's Philosophical Poems are published 1647. The Baptists issue a Confession, exhibiting their doctrinal agreement with the Churches. Hammond's Practical Catechism. 989. French Ch. Petavius' Dogmata Theologica. 990. American Ch. Roger WiOiams attacks the views of Cotton and the elders of Massachusetts, who distinguish between 'fundamentals' and 'circumstantials,' in his Bloody Tenet of Persecution, the first widely-read plea for complete religious fireedom. 991. £ng. Lit. Some of his own tracts having been condemned by the licensers, Milton protests in his Areopagitica against subjection to Pre8b3rterian beliei and policy, and demands liberty for books no less than for men. 992. Science. Descartes' Principia Philosophica, dedicated to the Princess Elizabeth, daughter of James I., discusses the laws of motion, propounds the theory of vortices, and replies to the criticisms of the Meditations. 995. Education. Milton writes a Letter on Education, at tUe request of Hartlib, a disciple of Comenius, many of whose views Milton has reached independently. 994- Philosophy. Sir Eenehn Digb/s treatises on Bodies, and on Man's SouL 996, Politics. Rutherford's Lex Bex contends that kings are elective and can be deposed by the people, and that parliaments are equally subject to the popular will. 996, ^6, Eng. Ch. Laud is executed, the impeachment having been n 545 changed into an attainder. '- The Westminster Directory is imposed, and the use of the Prayer Book, in public or private, is forbidden under heavy penalties. The Directory is attacked by Jeremy Taylor, Sanderson, and Ilammond, and its use is forbidden by the King. Five Independent Ministers, led by 134 POLITICS [1646 674. Ireland. The King sends the Earl of Glamorgan, a Catholic, to Ireland, to raise men and money (Aug.). The Earl accepts ^e demand for the transference of the churches to the nobles and for clerical juris- diction, on the promise of 10,000 men. A papal nuncio, Binuccini, lands in Ireland and requires fresh concessions, to which tjlamorgan also assents. 675. Germany. The Imperial force that has been sent to aid the Danes is pursued into Qermany by Torstenson, and routed at Mafdeburg (Jan.). Torstenson defeats another Impenal army at Jankau, in Bohemia (March), joins Kakoczy, prince of Transylvania, overruns Moravia, and advances^ on Vienna. He fails, however, to capture Briinn, retires to Bohemia, resigns, and is succeeded by WrangeL Turenne and Cond^ defeat the Imperialists at Nordlingen, but are forced to retire to the Khine. Turenne captures Treves and restores the Elector. 676. Denmark. Christian is forced to accept the Treaty of Bromsebro, ceding the islands of (jotland and Oesel, and commercial exemptions to Sweden. 677. Turkey. The Turks land in Crete and commence a war of con- quest, which lasts 24 years. 678. Russia. Erijanitch, a Croatian Catholic, settles in Moscow^ and champions the conception of Panslavism. 679. England. Charles' army in the west surrenders to Fairfax, ri 045 most of the remaining fortresses fiadl, and the King surrenders to ^ the Scots (May). He is taken to Newcastle, where he refuses to consent to the estiablisnment of Presbyterianism in England, and is in conse- quence treated as a prisoner. He also rejects the demands of Parlia- ment tp surrender the militia for 20 years and support Presbyterianism. Shortly after, desiring to allow time for the opjjosition to Presby- terianism to grow, he oflers to establish Presbyterianism for three years. 680. Germany. Turenne joins Wrangel, and devastates Bavaria. 681. Hnngary. George Rakoczy's insurrection leads to the concessions of several political and religious privileges. 682. En^and. The Scots surrender the King to Parliament and ri 047 retire, in return for the payment of their expenses. Charles is L*^*' taken to Holmby House, Northamptonshire. The IVesbyterian majority in Parliament accepts his proposal to establish Presbyterianism for three years as a basis for negociations, and at the same moment reduces 1647] CULTURE 135 Goodwin, recently letomed from Holland, appear in the Assembly, and join the Erastians, led by Selden, in opposition to the Presbyterians. Lord Herbert's De Religione Gentiliuin first attempts a natural history of religion and discovers in all religions the ideas of a Qod, immortality and conscience. 997. Follah Ch. The colloquy of Thorn, from which Unitarians are excluded, discusses reunion, and is attended by the Lutherans, Calixtus, CaloYy by the Moravian Gomenius, and by Catholics, but serves only to widen the gulf. 998. Asiatic Ch. Owing to the attacks of the Gapucins and Domini- cans, Lmocent X. condemns the Malabar Bites. Alexander VII. « how- ever, again authorises them, 1656. 999. Eng. Lit. Widler^s Poems, among them his odes to Saccharissa. 1000. Science. Boyle, Hooke, Wilkins, Wallis, Petty^ Seth Ward, and others b^n to meet for weekly scientific discussions at Gresham College, London, and in Oxford. 1001. Alt. Lesueur's Histoire de Saint Bruno (Louvre). 1002. Fhiloflophy. Busenbaum and Spee, German Jesuits, publish the Medulla, a treatise on Casuistry, of which 45 editions appear in 25 years. 1005. Philology. Le Jay's Polyglot, to which Morin contributes the Samaritan Pentateuch. 1004. Politioa. After the battle of Naseby Baxter visits the camp and witnesses the rapid growth of republican and revolutionary sentiments, fostered by Hugh nters and other Independent chaplains. At this moment^ Lilbume declares that sovereignty resides not in Parliament but in the people, and founds the Leveller movement in Southwark, whence it rapimy spreads to the army. 1006. Deaths. Orotius, Olivarez, Quevedo. 1006. Eng. Gh. Biddle, of Gloucester, attacks Trinitarianism, and n 045 translates the Bacovian Catechism. After repeated imprison- ^ ments, he dies 1662, and his work is carried on by Firmin and other disciples. 1007. American Ch. John Eliot begins his missionary labours in Massa- chusetts. 1008. Eng. Lit. Henry Vaughan, the Silurist, publishes his first poems. Sir Thomas Browne's Vulgar Errors. 1009. Fhilosophy. Escobar's Theologia Moralis, a treatise on Casuistry. 1010. History. Clarendon begins to write his History of the Bebellion. 1011. Education. The Schools at Port Boyal are fully organised, and for twenty years remain the best in France. Lancelot compiles several text-books, and Arnauld and Nicole compose the Port Boyal Logic. 1012. Death. Henderson. 1013. Eng. Ch. An election of elders under the new Presbyterian ri 047 scheme takes place, and the Provincial Assembly of London ^ meets. The system is also carried out in Lancashire, but never becomes widely adopted. 136 POLITICS [1647 the anny, without paying arrears. The regiments, in consequence, choose A^tators, and refuse to disperse. The Presbyterians plan a Scotch mvasion, and a royalist rising is reported to Cromwell, who orders Comet Joyce to prevent the King from being seized (June). Joyce, fearing the approacn of troops, takes Charles to Newmarket, and thence to Hampton Court. Parhament retorts by reoiganising the trained bands ; whereupon the army marches on London, and 11 Presby- terian members fly abroad. Meanwhile the officers try to reach an understanding with Charles, and Ireton offers the Heads of the Proposals, according to which Parlia- ment is to control the army and navy for 10 years, and to appoint to great offices. Parliaments are to be biennial, and toleration is to be granted to all but Catholics. When the King rejects these terms, the Agitators draw up the Case of the Army and the A^ement of the People, demanding biennial Parliaments, freedom of religion and trade, and equality before the law, but only obtain the sanction of the Council of Ofbcers for manhood suffrage, though this, too, is opposed by Cromwell and Ireton. The King becomes aware of his danger, and flies to the Isle of Wight, where he is detained in Carisbrook Castle (Nov.). He at once makes an arrangement with the Scots, promising three years' Presbyterianism in return for an army. G83. Ireland. Rinuccini fails to win Ireland, since Ormond prefers to hand over Dublin to the Parliamentsury troops and leaves the country. 684. Italy. A revolt in Palermo against Spanish rule is suppressed, but leads to an outbreak in Naples, under Masaniello, against the taxation of food. Aftier a dictatorship of a week, Masaniello is killed ; but the malcontents repulse a fleet sent under Don John, and proclaim a Kepublic. The nobility declare for Spain, and the rebels invite Henry of Ouise, Duke of Lorraine, a representative of the Anjou claims, to become Doge. Guise, however, quarrels with the popular leader, Gennaro Annese, who joins Spain, and by whose help Don John re- captures the city. 685. Holland. Negociations for peace with Spain are opened, inde- pendently of France. 686. England. Parliament, finding that the King refuses its no^o terms, declares that it will make no more proposals 7 Jan.). The ^ resolution is approved by the officers, and the Levellers lose their influence in the army. The people, on the contrary, weary of the rule and expense of the army. Fairfax suppresses a revolt in Kent, and takes Colchester after a long siege. Cromwell suppresses a simultaneous insurrection in Wales, and, marching north, routs the Scots, who have invaded England, at Preston (Aug.). The army removes the King to Hurst Castle, and, when Parliament declares for a reconciliation with the King» sends Colonel Pride to exclude the royalist members from the House (Dec). 1648] CULTURE 137 Jeremy TayWs Liberty of Prophesying restates the positions of Ghillingworth, excluding only the Anabaptists from toleration. Jeremy Taylor's Dissuasive from Popery. Baxter's Saints' Best George Fox begins itinerant preaching, his doctrine of the Inner Light bemff in part derived from tne Mennonite Baptists and from the Schwenkfeldians. He is joined by Dewsbury, HowgUl, Burroughs and Marearet Fell, whom he marries. On the frJl of Oxford, Parliament appoints Commissioners for a Visitation. The University declares its abhorrence of the Solemn League and Covenant^ and Sanderson, Hammond, and other Anglicans are expelled. 1014, Scotch Ch. The Westminster Confession is adopted without change by the General Assembly. 1015, Eng. Lit. Cowley's Mistress, a specimen of the Metaphysical School. 1016, French Lit. Vaugelas' Bemarques control literary taste for sixty years. Botrou's Wenceslaa 1017, Science. Pecquet discovers that the lacteals empty themselves into a large tube, the thoracic duct, which carries the fluid into the principdi veins. His discovery is confirmed by Riidbeck, 1649. 1018, Fhiloflophy. Sanderson's De Obligatione Juramenti. 1019, Politics. Chemnitz' (Hippolytus a Lapide) De Batione Status m Imperio declares that the Germanic Constitution is German and not Roman, and that absolutism has no place, and attacks Austria's hegemony. 1020, Deaths. Hooft, Torricelli. 1021, Eng. Ch. Parliament approves the Longer and Shorter r^^g^g Westminster Catechisms ; the former composed chiefly by ^ Tuckney, the latter probably in part bv Wallis, the mathematician. The Shorter Catechism takes its place oesides Luther's and that of Heidelberg, and is at once adoptea in New England. Andrewes' Private Devotions are published. Jeremy Taylor's Life of Christ. 1022. Scotch Ch. The Catechisms are adopted by the General Assembly, and are approved by Parliament, 1649. 1028, German Ch. The Treaty of Westphalia extends to the Calvinists the recognition confined by &Q Peace of Augsburg to the Lutherans. Gerhard's first hymns contribute to the pietistic revival, and found German lyrical poeliy. 1024, Dutch Ch. Coccejus' De Foedere et Testamentis Dei, a compro- mise between Calvinism and Aiminianism, is attacked as Pelagian by Voetius and the rigid Calvinists. 138 POLITICS [1648 687. Qermaaxj, The ravages of the Swedes in Bavaria and the victory of Cond^ at Lens precipitate the conclusion of the Treaty of West- phalia. In secular affairs a return is made to tiie conditions of 1618. The Electoral dignity and the Upper Palatinate are left with the Bavarian house,^ the Lower Palatinate being restored to the son of the Winter King, with a new (8th) Electorate. Brandenburg obtains part of further Pomerania, the Archbishoprics of Magdeburg and the bishoprics of HalberstiBult and Minden. Questions of ownership of ecclesiastical estates are to be settled by the conditions of 1624. The Imperial Court is restored, its members being drawn equally from Protestants and GathoUcs. The princes are allowed to conclude alliances with each other and with foreign powers, if not directed against the Emperor and Empire. 688. France. On the news of the victory at Lens, the Queen-mother arrests Broussel, the leader of the opposition of the Parliament of Paris. Barricades are erected, De Betz, Coadjutor of the Archbishop of Paris, obtains the release of Brousset, and the Court is forced to accept certain of tiie demands of the Frondeurs. France, which with Sweden becomes a guarantor of the Treaty of Westphalia, obtains the legal cession of Metz, Toul and Verdun, Breisach and most of Elsass, the overlordship of Pinerolo, and the right to garrison Philipsburg. 689. Sweden. Sweden obtains the greater part of Pomerania and the Bishoprics of Bremen and Verden as fiefs of the Empire. 690. Switzerland. Switzerland is declared independent of the Empire. 691. Holland. The Dutch are recognised as independent of Spain at the Treaty of Miinster, and insist on the closing of the Scheldt 692. England. The Commons declare that the people being the n 649 source of power, they, being chosen by them, are supreme. A ^ Court for the trial of the King is constituted, but only half the appointed members are present Charles refuses to plead and is con- demned and executed (Jan. 30), his son taking the title of Charles II. The Commons abolish the Monarchy and the House of Lords, and appoint a Council of State of 41. The Levellers attack the Govem- ment, but are suppressed, and begin to plot with the Royalists. 693. Ireland. Cromwell crosses to Ireland, where Charles has been proclaimed, and storms Drogheda and We^dbrd. 694. France. The Court leaves Paris for St Germain, and the Frondeurs are joined by Conti, the Due and Duchesse de Longueville, La Bochefoucauld, and Beaufort Cond^ comes to the aid of the Court and captures the Fronde towna The nobles retort by applying for aid to the Sj[>anish Netherlands. President Mol^, who desires a compro- mise, visits Ruel and concludes a treaty, which, however, is rejectea by the nobles. A Spanish force enters Champagne, but Mazann bribes Turenne's troops to desert their leader. The second Treatv of Kuel is made, and the Regent buys off the nobles with pensions and offices. 1649] CULTURE 139 1026. Bohemian Ch. Gomenius becomes chief Bishop of the Bohemian Brothers and revives the society. 1026. Chnrch Hist. Innocent X. condemns the Peace of West]>halia, which is concluded without consultmg him, and declares that it is not binding. 1027. Kmg. Lit. Herrick's Hesperides. 1028. Bwediflh Lit Stjernhjelm enters Christina's Court and founds Swedish poetry and dmma. The Queen also receives visits from Salmasius, Grotius, Vossius, Naudd, Bocluurt, Huet^ Descartes, and other distinguished fpreigners. 1029. Death. Lord Herbert. 1050. iSng. Ch. Thomdike's Right of a Church in a Christian r^^^g State. '- 1051. Scotch Ch. Lay patronage is abolished. 1052. French Ch. Five propositions from the Augustinus are selected hv certain doctors of the SorlK)nne for disapproval, and 85 prelates urge the Pope to condemn them. A Committee decides against tnem, thouj^h without declaring that they are to be found in Jansen's book. The Jansenists admit the heretical character of the Propositions, but deny that they were held by Jansen. A new enquiry is therefore made by the Bishops, who report that they are in the dook. loss. Oerman Ch. The mystiriesthood to lecture on the day of rest. 1062. Deaths. Inigo Jones, Petavius, John Smith. 1065. Eng. Ch. A lar^e section adopts Millenarian ideas, and ri geo James Naylor allows himself to be recqznised in Bristol as the L-"""^^ Messiah. Fifth Monarchy men, led by Feake and Kogers, also become definitely Antinomian, though Vane and Harrison stand idoof. Jeremy Taylor's course of Sermons for the Christian Tear. 106J!^. French Ch. Innocent X. condemns five Propositions concerning Grace, professing to be drawn firom the Augustinus, without declaring whether they are in Augustine or in Jansen. 1066. German Ch. The Great Elector confirms the declaration of Sigis- mund, grantii^ toleration to Lutherans and Calvinists. 1066. Dutch Ch. Many Dutch Catholics accept Jansenism, denying that the condemned propositions are drawn firom Jansen's work. The States-General declare against the Unitarians, many of whom in con- sequence become professing Arminians. 1067. Asiatic Ch. Syrian Christians renounce the Roman Church and enter into relations with the Jacobites. 1068. Eng. Lit. Isaac Walton's Complete Angler. 1069. Scotch Lit. Sir Thomas Urquhak's translation of BAbelais, the last monument of old Scotch prose. 1070. Spanish Lit. Gracian s Ordculo Manual, an anticipation of La BiOchefoucauld. 144 POLITICS [1663 714. Gerzuany. The Oreat Elector issues a Constitution and suppresses his Diet. 715. Holland. De Witt is elected Pensionary of Holland, and becomes the ruler of the United Provinces for 20 years. 716. England. CromweU terminates the war with the Dutch, na^ the House of Orange being excluded from the Stadtholdership. ^ He also decrees a union with Scotland and Ireland, and a reform of Chancery. On the meeting of the first Protectorate Parliament, elected on the lines of Vane's lUform BiU, an attack is made on the new government ; but the Protector excludes about 100 members who refuse to promise not to attempt to alter the Constitution. Cromwell offers his alliance to Spain, in return for freedom to trade in the West Indies and toleration for the English in Spanish territory. On Spain's refusal, he sends a fleet under Penn and Venables to attack the Spanish Indies. Bmke sails for the Mediterranean, obtains compensation from Tuscany and the Pope for injuries inflicted with their countenance on English merchants, and bombards Tunis for refusing a similar indemnity. Cromwell forces Denmark to reopen the Sound and to pay damages. Whitelocke is sent to Sweden, and Christina proves friendly. 717. Sweden. Christina resigns the throne to her cousin, Charles X., and declares herself a Catholic. 718. Switzerland. Cromwell sends Dury and Pell to arrange a league with the Protestant Cantons. 719. England. The Protector, finding the members persist in nQ55 criticising the Constitution, dissolves Parliament. Some refuse '• to pay taxes, on the ground that the Instrument has not been recognised by Parliament, and flie judges who agree with them are ejected. A royalist plot breaks out in Wiltshire, and the republicans become increasingly active. Cromwell in consequence divides England into military districts under Major-Oenerals. Blake destroys the Barbary fleet and releases the captives in Algiers. Cromwell makes an alliance with France, Dunkirk to be taken by the joint armies and handed over to England, and religious fireedom to be granted to Englishmen in France. At this moment the Duke of Savoy attacks the Vaudois, and Cromwell forces Mazarin to stop the persecution as the price of his alliance. Penn and Venables are repulsed from San Domingo, but seize Jamaica, in which a number of settlers arrive from Barbados and St Kitts. The Levellers plot with the Royalists, but nothing is done, both from want of money and from opposition to the royal veto and episco- pacy. Sexby, the leader, is seiz^, 1658, and the Levellers disappear. 1666] CULTURE 145 1071, Swedish Lit. Stjemhjelm's Hercules, a didactic allegory, im- proves the language. 107%. Death. Salmasius. 1075, Eng. Ch. Cromwell appoints Triers, among them Rouse [1^54 and Peters, to provide a good Puritan clergy. ^ 1074, French Cn. Pascal, scared by a carriage accident, enters Port- RoyaL 1076. Church Hist. Cromwell commissions Dury to work for re-union in Switzerland, Germany and Holland. 1076. Eng. Lit. Roger Boyle's Parthenissa imitates the French Romans de longue Haleine, at this time widely read in England. 1077. American Lit. Johnson's Wonder Working Providence of New England replies to the charges against the colonists and contends that the settlements were undertaken for religious purposes, and are sustained by miracles. 1078. Dutch Lit. Vondel's Lucifer, a drama in five acts. 1079. Science. Pascal and Format found the theory of probabilities. Hobbes, who has spoken slightingly of the Universities and urged the State to teach obedience to itself and to prohibit the study of scholastic philosophy and the classics, is attacked by Ward, Professor of Astronomy at Oxford and by Wallis, Professor of Mathematics, who mercilessly expose his mathematics and science. The controversy with Wallis continues till 1678. Glisson discovers the fibrous sheath of the liver known as 'Glisson's Capsules ' and detects irritability. 1080. Philosophy. The controversy between Hobbes and Bishop Bram- hall on the Freedom of the Will begins. 1081. Politics. Milton's Defensio Secunda attacks a reply to his Defensio Prima written by Peter Dumoulin, and edited by Moms, a Scot, and urges the Protector to associate the ^Commonwealths men' in the Government. Conring's De Finibus Imperii Germanici discusses the relation of the Empire to the States. 1082. Social. Petty executes a survey of Irish land, rendered necessary by the changes of the last generation. 108S. Deaths. Gataker, Oxenstiem, Selden. 1084. Eng. Ch. Frightened by the rising in Wiltshire, the Pro- r^ggg tector forbids the private use of the services of the Church, the •• employment of Anglican cleigy as chaplains or schoolmasters, and the |>ractice of repeating prayers from memory. Gunning, however, con- tinues to preach in I^naon, and the Episcopal Church is upheld by Hammond, Sheldon, Sanderson and others. Cromwell is induced by Manasseh ben Israel of Amsterdam to consider the return of the Jews. The committee appointed failing to agree, Cromwell resolves to proceed alone, despite the attacks of Prynne and others. The Jews from this time gradually creep back. Q. 10 146 POLITICS [1666 720. Sweden. Charles X. invades Poland, whose King, Casimir, refuses to recognise him, and overruns the country almost without resistance. The Great Elector, hitherto neutral, prepares to bar his return, but is attacked and defeated. 721. BvTitzerlaiid. An attempt to draft a new federal constitution fails, and the Catholic cantons renew the Borromean League. The first Vilmergen war breaks out, in which the Protestants are defeated, and after which the sovereign right of each state is affirmed. 722. Asia. The Emperor of China allows Russia to send a caravan yearly to Pekin. Russia also builds some forts on the south shore of the Amur, and moves steadily towards the East. The Chinese Govern- ment, finiJly, determines to hinder the advance, demolishes the forts, and forces Russia to sign the treaty of Nertchinsk (1689) (the first treaty concluded by China with an European power), promising not to meddle with the territory south of the Amur. 723. En^and. War is declared by Spain, and a second Parlia- n q^q ment is summoned to grant money, about 100 members of ^ which are, however, excluded. Part of the Spanish treasure-fleet is captured. Vane's Healing Question, written in ren)onse to the Protector's request for advice, advocates the calling of a Constituent Assembly. 724. Portugal. A fleet under Blake and Montague compels King John to ratify his treaty with England. 725. Sweden. The Great Elector is forced to make a treaty with diaries X.^ agreeing to hold the duchy of Prussia of Sweden (Jan.). The Poles rise and repulse the Swedes, and Charles obtains the alliance of the Elector by ceding part of Poland. With his aid, he defeats John Casimir in the three (kys' battle of Warsaw. To retain the alliance, Charles surrenders his suzerainty over the duchy of Prussia. The other nations are by this time alarmed, and Russia interrupts her conflict with Poland to ally with her against Sweden. The Emperor and the Danes at the same time declare against Sweden. Charles thereupon secures the help of Rakoksy of Transylvania, and attacks Russia in Lithuania. At this moment the Danes, with the JBmperor and the Dutch, attack the Swedish coasts, and Charles returns. 726. Turkey. After a long period of misrule, Kiuprili, an Albanian, becomes Vizier, and reorganises the State and the Army. His son, Turkey's greatest statesman, succeeds him 1661, and for 15 years maintains nis position as virtual Sultan. Though his administration is successful, his military career is a complete failure. The Venetians destroy a Turkish fleet. 1656] CULTURE 147 1085. French Ch. The Due de Liancourt, a rich patron of Port-Royal, is refdsed aheolution at St Sulpice unless he deserts the Jansenists. Amaold writes two pamphlets, denying that the condemned nropositions are in the Augustinns, and is in consequence ezpellea from the Sorbonne. La Fe3rr4re's Systema Theologicum, the first definitely rationalist work on creation, inspiration, miracles. D'Ach^iy's Spicilegium (in which Mabillon shares), the first of a long series of works of erudition issuing from the Benedictines of St Maur. 1086. German Oh. Calov's ConsoDsus of the Lutheran Faith attacks Calixtus' Syncretism, and is approved by Wittenberg and Leipsig. The symbol, however, is rejected at Jena by the pupils of Gerhard, and never becomes widely adopted Galov commences his Loci Theologici, a summary of rigid Lutheran orthodoxy. 1087. History. Dugdale's Monasticon. 1088. Philosophy. Stanley's History of Philosophy. 1089. Eng. Oh. Mu^gleton and Reeve describe the revelations r^^^g vouchsaf(^ to them m the Divine Looking-glass, and proclaim ^ themselves the two witnesses of the Apocalypse. 1090. French Oh. The Pope declares the condemned propositions to be in the Augustinus, and all ecclesiastics are ordered to accept this decision. Pascal's (anonymous) Lettres Provinciales attack the Jesuits, 1-^3 dealing with Grace and the condemnation of Amauld, 4 — 16 attacking Jesuit casuistry. The last two letters return to the 5 Propositions and assert that the Pope is infallible in matters of faith alone. The work is answered by P^re Daniel and others, but initiates a reaction in favour of Port-Royal which is increased by the efiect of the Sainte Epine on Pascal's niece. 1091. Dntch Ch. Spinoza, after narrowly escaping assassination, is ex* communicated by the Jews at Amsterdam. 1092. American Oh. The Quakers reach Massachusetts and are vio- lently persecuted, a few beinff killed. 1093. Eng. Lit. Cowley's Pmdaric Odes. Waller's Ode to CromwelL 1094. French Lit. Ghapelain's Epic, La Pucelle, obtains a great though short-lived popularity. 1095. Science. Wallis' Arithmetica Infinitorum extends the methods of analysis of Descartes and Cavalieri. 1096. Politics. Harrington's Oceana, a system of aristocratic republi- canism, strongly influenced by Venetian institutions, containing re- markable anticipations of modem reforms in regard to education, the franchise, and the ballot, imposing a limit on accumulation of land and filling the ofiices of state by rotation, appeals to the Protector to reorganise the government. Harrington's system is attacked by Baxter in his Holy Commonwealth on the ground that men are not wise or good enough to make it a success. 10—2 148 POLITICS [1667 727. England. In return for a grant of money, Cromwell re- ngcv moves the Major-Generals. Parliament offers the Protector the ^ title of Ein^, and the power to appoint his successor, and draws up the Humble Petition and Advice, by which the members of the Council of State are nominated and removable by consent of Parliament, which is to consist of two Houses. The Protector accepts the new Constitution, but revises the Kingship. Meanwhile Blake destroys a Spanish fleet off Teneriffe, but dies on his way home. 728. Fxunce. Condi's success against Turenne encourages Spain, and the war revives. Cromwell sends 6,000 men to co-operate, and Mardyck is taken. 729. Sv^eden. The Great Elector joins^ Poland against Sweden, and receives Prussia free from Polish suzerainty. The Swedes are driven out of Poland, retaining only Polish Prussia. Charles, however, attacks Denmark, with which the Great Elector allies. 730. Himgary. George Bakoksy H., wishing to extend the power of Transylvania, allies with Sweden for the partition of Poland, and gains sevenu victories. He is crushed, however, by Imperialist and Turkish armies and deposed, part of Transylvania passing under direct Turkish rule. 731. Asia. Aurungzebe deposes his father and becomes Emperor. 732. England. The Commons meet for theur second session and ri qrq restore the exclud^ members ; but on attacking the Upper ^ House, they are dissolved (Feb.). The Protector loses his' favourite daughter (Aug.), and dies (Sept. 3), and is succeeded by his son Kichard, whom he is said to have named on his death-bed. 733. France. With the aid of the English troops, Turenne routs the Spaniards under Condd and Don John at the battle of the Dunes (June), and takes Dunkirk, which is retained by England. 734. Germany. Failing to secure the election of Louis as Emperor, Mazarin creates a Confederation of the Rhine, nominally to guarantee the Treaty of Westphalia. 735. Sweden. Charles crosses the frozen belt to Copenhagen, and com- pels Denmark to cede her East Sound provinces ana to close the Baltic against the enemies of Sweden (Feb.). Charles concludes a truce with Russia, and again attacks Denmark, which receives aid from the Dutch and the Great Elector. 736. Asia. The Dutch take Jaffnapatam, the last important Portuguese port in Ceylon. 737. England. Richard is attacked by the officers, who demand n^^Q that Fleetwood shall become their general and independent of ^ the Protector. The latter demand is refused, and the army forces Richard to dissolve Parliament (April). A fortnight later, 42 members of the Rump, ejected in 1653, meet at Westminster and attempt to dictate to tne officers. Richard abdicates (May), and Booth rises in 1669] CULTURE 149 1097. History. Fuller's Church History of Britain. 1098, Deaths. Galiztus, Gassendi, Ussher. 1099, Eng. Oh. The Whole Duty of Man (anonymous) is pub- ri qrv lished with a preface by Hammond. ^ 1100, French Ch. De Marca draws up a formula of renunciation of the 5 Propositions, which the Pope approves. Amauld again denies that the condemned tenets are in the Augustinus. 1101, Qerman Ch. Angelus Silesius (Scheffler), a recent convert to Catholicism, publishes his Geistliche Seelenlust, a collection of mystical son^, influenced by his study of Behmen. Schupp's Solomon, Friend in Need, and other didactic tracts, foster practical theology. 1102, French Int. Ninon's Salon in Paris is fr^uented by the Libertins, St Evremond, Scarron, OourviUe, Sarrasin, and later, by Lafare, Chaulieu and the habitu^ of the Temple. 1105, Science. The Academia del Cimento is founded at Florence, among its members being Torricelli and CasteUio. The Society exists for 10 years. 1104, Education. Comenius' Orbis Sensualium Pictus, the child's first picture-book. Cromwell founds a University at Durham for the northern counties. It is supi)re8sed at the Restoration, but revived 1837. 1106, Pmlology. Brian Walton completes his Polyglot, in nine languages, aided by Pococke, Thomdike, Hyde, Hammond, Ussher, Li^tfoot, and other scholars. 1106, History. Prynne's Abridgement of the Becords of the Tower. 1107, Deaths. Carpzov, Harvey. 1108, Eng. Oh. The Savoy Declaration, the fundamental Con- ri 050 gregational Confession, is drawn up by Goodwin, Owen, and Nye, >- and differs but slightly from the Westminster Confession. 1109, Science. Pascal, following the work of Roberval, solves certain problems of the cycloid by the method of indivisibles. His work in this direction is continued by Wallis, 1659. Sylvius becomes Professor of Medicine at Leyden and founds the iatro-chemical school, owing something to Paracelsus and Van Helmont. The teaching is imported into England by Thomas Willis. Huyghens invents the cycloidal pendulum and applies the pendulum to clocks. 1110, Philosophy. Ghussendi's Syntagma Philosophicum, less materialist than his criticisms on Descartes, presents a theory of ideas that almost anticipates Locke, and a system of Epicurean Ethics. 1111, Philology. Lightfoot's Horae Hebraicae. 1112, Eng. Lit. Sir T. Browne's Hydriotaphia advocates cremation. Ills. Eng. Ch. Pearson's Exposition of the Apostles' Creed. neso Stillingfleet, influenced by his training under the Cambridge ^ 150 POLITICS [1669 Cheshire for Charles IL, but is defeated by Lambert (Aug.). The Rump is excluded from the House by Lambert (Oct.), but, after the failure of Ludlow's attempt to appoint Conservators of Liberty, is restored by the officers, who discover that they cannot obtain taxes (DecA 738. France. Mazarin neffociates the Peace of the Pyrenees, by which Louis XIV. is to xnairv the Infanta, and France receives RoussiUon, Artois and a number of fortresses on the N.E. frontier. Lorraine is to be conditionally restored to Charles, and the Gbvemorship of Buigundy to Cond^, and Portugal is not to be further assisted. 739. Sweden. The Great Elector drives the Swedes from the mainland. Holland, France and Ihigland ally to keep the Baltic open and force Charles X. to make peace. 740. England. Monk crosses the border, is joined by Fairfie^ at naoQ York, and enters London (Feb. 3). The City refuses to pay^ *- taxes without representation, and Monk declares for a free Parliament (Feb. 16). The Kump recalls the Presbyterians excluded by Pride, and Parliament votes its own dissolution and orders a new election. By the Declaration of Breda, Charles promises amnesty, toleration, payment of the soldiers' arrears, and confirmation of transfers of land (April 4). Parliament meets (April 25), and welcomes the Declaration, invites the King to return, and aeclares for the old Constitution. The King enters London (May 29). Hyde becomes supreme, and a return is tacitly made to the situation of August, 1641. A partial indemnity is j^ranted^ and 13 regicides, with Vane, are hanged The army is paid, and, except for two regiments, disbanded, military tenures and feudal dues are abolished, and a revenue of £1,200,000, drawn firom tonnage and poundage and excise is settled on the Ein^. Councils of Trade and Foreign Plantations are formed. 741. France. Louis marries me Infanta, who is compelled by the Spanish Court to renounce her claim to the Spanish throne, on condition 01 receiving a dowry, which is never paid. 742. ^ Sweden. Charles dies, and the war is terminated by the treaty of Oliva between Sweden, Poland and Brandenburg, conquests being re- stored and Casimir renouncing his claims to the Swedish crown and to Esthonia and Livonia. The sovereignty of Russia is recognised by Sweden and Poland. Peace is renewed with Denmark, which surrenders the south of Scandinavia. The pacification of the north is completed by a treaty between Sweden and Russia, each restoring conouests, 1661. The Swedish estates confer almost unlimited power on the King. 743. Denmark. The dergv and citizens force the nobles to share in taxation, make the Crown hereditary, abrogate the privileges extorted from the infiEmt King, and place the whole government under royal control. 744. Turkey. The Emperor sends Montecuculi to defend Transylvania, thus for the first time for 100 years becoming involved in war with the Porte. 1660] CULTURE 151 Platonists, urges in his Irenicum a compromise between systems of Church goyemment, none of which, in his opinion, can chum divine right. More attacks Hobbes in his Immortality of the SouL Thomdike's Epilogue to the Tragedy of the Church of Enghmd emphasizes the need of return to the primitive Church. 1114. French Ch. A synod of the Irotestant Church is held under the presidency of Daill^; the King, however, forbids further meetings. 1116. French Lit. Moli^re, who has settled in Paris and played before the Court 1658, produces his first masterpiece, Les Pr^ieuses Ridicules, in part suggested by the affectations of the Rambouillet circle. St Evremond is banished for his criticism on the Treaty of the Pyrenees, and settles in England. 1116. German Lit. Grimmelshausen's Simplicissimus. 1117. Science. Huyghens discovers that Saturn is surrounded bv a rins. 1118. Politics. Various plans of government are suggested in Englana, Harrington's theories bemg discussed at the Rota Club and exciting special notice. 1119. Eng. Ch. Clarendon draws up a Declaration on behalf of n aqq the King making a number of concessions to nonconformists, ^ which, however, are rejected by Parliament. (Oct.) Henry More's Mystery of Godliness, a system of mystical theosophy. 1120. Scotch Ch. Lav patronage is restored, the leading Covenanters are imprisoned, and Kutherforas Lex Rex and Guthne's Causes of God's Wrath are called in. 1121. Lriflh Ch. The Irish Catholics are offered toleration if they will swear allegiance to the King and repudiate the Pope's claim to depose him. An address is drawn up by Carew and Walsn, and signed by 120 nobles, but is condemned by the Irish Bishops and the papal nuncio at Brussels. 1122. Polish Ch. Unitarians are expelled from Poland, and settle in large numbers in Holland. 1123. Eng. Lit. Pepys begins his Diary, which he keeps for 9 years. 1124. Oerman Lit. Gryphius' Geliebte Domrose. 1126. Science. The scientists (see 1645) again begin to meet at Gresham College, fulfilling the schemes of Bolton, 1616, Charles L, and more recently, of Evelyn, Cowley, and Petty for a college. Boyle, Wallis, Wren, Brouncker, and others, are incorporated as the Royal Society, 1662, and begin to publish Transactions, 1665. The Society is attacked by South, Gunning, and Stubbe, as hostile to religion and morali^. 1126, FhiloBophy. Jeremy Taylor's Ductor Dubitantium, the most systematic English work on Casuistry. tl27. Politics. Milton's Ready Nay to establish a free Commonwealth recommends the election of a Grand Council, chosen for life. 1128. Socisd. Women appear on the stage, in part owing to the example of Mrs Betterton. 1129. jDeaths. Hammond, Vincent de Paul, Velasquez. 162 POLITICS [1661 745. England. A few Fifkh Monarchy men, led by Venner, rjgQ^ revolt in the City, but are easily suppressed, and political *- Millenarianism finally disappears. The incident, however, strengthens the reaction and allows the King to retain some regiments. A new Cavalier Parliament meets, declares war against the Kinjg to be un- lawful, and passes the Corporation Act, by which aU municipal officers must renounce the Covenant and receive the Sacrament according to Anglican rites. Charles announces his intended Portuguese marriage, to which he is encouraged by Louis. Charles promises to assist the Portuguese with troops and a fleet. 746. Scotland. The old form of government is restored, Argyle is executed, and the persecution of the Covenanters begins. Outhrie is executed, Rutherford escapes by death, Gillespie recants. Episcopacy is restored, and Sharp becomes Archbishop of St Andrews. A revolt is quelled at Ruthen Green. 747. Ireland. By the Act of Settlement, settlers during the Inter- regnum are confirmed in possession of their lands, and Catholics unconcerned in the rebellion of 1641 are restored. By the Act of Explanation, 1665, adventurers and soldiers surrender one-third of their lands. 748. France. Mazarin dies, and the King, aided by Le Tellier, Lionne and Louvois, who reorganises the army, personally assumes the govern- ment. Fouquet, the superintendent of the finances, is dismissed and succeeded by Colbert, who is recommended by Mazarin. 749. Russia. Bv the peace of Eardis, Russia ends the war with Sweden, and abandons all claims to Livonia. 750. America. Massachusetts draws up a Declaration of Rights, asserting its claim to defend itself against all who disturb the colony, and declares against the Navigation Act. 751. England. The sale of Dunkirk to France for £200,000 r|gg« evokes angry remonstrances directed against Clarendon. ^ 752. Prance. The French Ambassador at Rome being maltreated by the Pope's Corsican guards, Louis sends troops to Rome and seizes Avi^on, 1663, and the Pope is forced to send a legate to demand pardon. The King also refuses to lower his flag to Endand, and obtains ceremonial precedence for the French over the Spanish ambas- sador in London. 753. Holland. De Witt makes treaties with France and England, which promise aid if attacked. 754. America. Connecticut receives a liberal Charter. 755. Asia. Sivaji, chief of the Mahratta Confederacy of the Deccan, begins to fight with Aurungzebe, asserts his independence, 1664> and 1662] CULTUBE 153 1180. £ng. Ch. A conference to discuss the revision of the riggi Prayer-book takes place at the Savoy Palace, the Anglicans led *- by Sheldon, Morley, Gunning, and Pearson, the Presbyterians by Baxter, llie objections to the Prayer-book are not accepted, and the four months granted for the Conference elapse before the discussion is ended. The King orders Convocation to revise the Prayer-book. Beverid^e's Private Thoughts on Religion. IISI. Scot- Prayer-book, to receive episcopal ordination, and to condemn the Cove- nant and resistance, by August 24, are ordered to resign. Several hundred Ptesbyterian ministers in consequence leave the ChurcL The Prayer-book, revised by Convocation and greatly aided by the collections of Cosin, is accepted by Parliament. 154 POLITICS [1662 maintains it till his death, 1680. The Mahrattas gradually become the dominant power in the south, and encourage the small Mohamedan states in resistance to Aurungzebe's life-long purpose of subjugating the Deccan. Catherine of Portugal brings Bombay as a dowry, which Charles sells to the East India Company. The seat of the Western Presidency is fixed there, 1687. The Dutch take Cochin, the principal Portuguese station in South India, and the chief pepper ports on the Malabar coasts. 756. Africa. A new African company is formed, and contracts to supply slaves to the British West Indies. Catherine of Braganza brings with her Tangier as a dowry. 757. Ireland. Irish ships are excluded from the benefit of the n^Q^ Nayigation Laws. *- 758. uermany. The Diet of the Empire at Regensburg becomes permanent. 759. Portugal Don John takes Evora ; but Lisbon is saved by a vict(»y at Almexial, in which the English auxiliaries share. 760. TOrkey. The Turks seize the Upper Danube. 761. America. Rhode Island receives a Charter under which it lives till 1842. The Colony of Carolina, south of Virginia, is founded by Clarendon, Monk, Shaftesbury, and other proprietaries. Colbert incorporates a new Company to colonise Guiana, and unites it with the West Indies under a West India Company, 1665. 762. West Indies. Barbadoes passes to the English Crown. 763. En^and. The King persuades Parliament to repeal the ryaoA Triennial Act of 1641 ; but the interval between ParHaments is L^""* limited to three years. War with the Dutch breaks out, chiefly owing to friction in West Africa ; ports are seized in the West Indies and Guinea. 764. Prance. Colbert establishes trading Companies for India and the Levant. His first tariff, unlike his second twiff, 1677, admits raw materials free. Colbert fails to build up manufactures for lack of markets,^ harasses agriculture by his changeable policy in regard to exportation, and cripples his trading Companies by a too strict monopoly. He neglects to remove the internal tolls on road and river. 1664] CULTURE 155 Stillingfleet's Ongines Saciae declares primitive bishops no more than the equal of presbyters. 114s, Scotch Ch. Presbyterian assemblies are forbidden ; nobody may become a minister or schoolmaster without a bishop's license, nor may hold an office of public trust without abjuring the Covenant 400 ministers refuse and are ejected. 1144, Church Hist. Antoinette Bourignon gathers round her a circle of believers in her revelations. She obtains great success in the Spanish Netherlands, where Poiret becomes her friend and interpreter. 1145, American Ch. Wigglesworth's poem on the Day of Doom depicts the damnation of unbaptised infants. 1U6. Eng. Lit. Fuller's Worthies of England. The Licensing Act revives many of the provisions of the Star Chamber Ordinances. 1147. Art. Le Brun, a pupil of Vouet and Poussin, becomes first painter to the King. 1148, Philosophy. Arnauld and Nicole compose the Cartesian Logique de Port-B^ysl, which is accepted by Bossuet and F^nelon, used in Holland, Gtermany^ England and Ital^, and remains the authorised text-book till Empiricism becomes dominant in the 1 8th century. IIJ^. Economics. Pett/s Treatise on Taxes and Contributions allows the export of mone^, and declares that price depends on cost of produc- tion, and that division of labour tends to cheapness. 1160, Death. PascaL 1161, Eng. Ch. The Kind's request for an Act allowing him to ri aao use the dOspensing power is opposed b^ Clarendon and rejected >- by Parliament The tolerant Archbishop Juxon is succeeded by Sheldon. Convocation for the last time grants a subsidy. 1162, Eng. Lit. Butler satirises ruritanism in Hudibras. L'Estrange is appointed licenser of the press, and issues The Intelligencer. Dryden's The Wild Gallant originates the Restoration Comedy, developed by Ether^e, Shadwell, Sedley, Mrs Behn, Wycherley. 1163, French Lit. llie Acad^mie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres is founded. 1164, Science. Newton discovers the Binomial Theorem. Pascal's L'£quilibre des Liqueurs is published, proving that the pressure on a liquid is transmitted undiminished in all directions and acts with die same force on all equal surfaces in a direction at right angles to them. 1166, Death. Sanderson. 1166, Eng. Ch. The first Conventicle Act forbids nonconformist n qq^ meetings of more than four besides the household under heavy ^ penalties. Tillotson becomes preacher at Lincoln's Inn, his Sermons being regarded as models for a century. 156 POLITICS [1664 765. Turkey. Montecuculi, aided by French troops, routs the Turks at St Grothard. Owing, however, to Leopold's anxiety to terminate the war, a truce of 20 years is made, the continued quasi-independence of Transylvania being recognised. 766. AmericaN NicoUs, one of the Commissioners sent to investigate complaints against Massachusetts, takes New Netherlands almost with- out a blow. Charles gives the territory to his brother ; but the Duke grants the southern part to favourites, and names it New Jersey. 767. En^and. Parliament appropriates a large sum for the war, n oar and the Duke of York wins a dfecisive victory off Southwold Bay ^ (June). Charles employs the Bishop of Munster to attack the States on the flank. 768. Ireland. Irish cattle and daiiy produce are excluded from England. 769. Spain. Louis offers to help to crush Portugal if Spain will declare his wife's renunciation invalid, or will cede Franche-Comt^ and part of the Netherlands. Philip refuses, and is routed by IVench and rortu- guese troops at Villa Viciosa, which secures Portuguese independence and gives a final blow to Spain. Philip IV. dies, and is succeeded by his sickly son, Charles II. Maria Anna of Austria becomes Regent, but her subjection to her Jesuit confessor Nithard leads to the formation of a party under the late King's natural son, Don John, and the expulsion of Nithard, 1669. 770. Austria. The younger line of the Hapsburgs dies out, and Tyrol falls to the Emperor. 771. America. New Haven unites with Connecticut. 772. England. Louis, as an ally of Holland, declares war noAA against England (Jan.), and drives off the Bishop of Munster. ■- Tne Dutch, under Ruyter, defeat Monk and Bupert in a four days' battle off Dover (June), but are themselves worsted off the North Fore- land (July). Algernon Sydnev and other exiles plot with Louis to raise a rebellion in England; but the plan fails, owing to the disapproval of De Witt. Parliament appoints a Committee to inspect the accounts of naval and other officials. 1666] CULTURE 157 1167. Scotch Ch. A Court of High Commission with unlimited powers is erected, on the advice of Sharp, Archbishop of St Andrews. A revolt breaks out, but is crushed at Pentland. 1168. French Ch, Nicole's Perpetuity de la Foi touchant TEucharistie contends that a belief in the Keal Presence has always existed. The assertion is denied by Claude and other Protestants. De Ranc^ begins to reform the abbey of La Trappe. 1169. French Lit Molifere's TartuflFe. 1160, Science. Willis' Anatome Cerebri first carefully investigates the brain. 1161, Numismatics. Spanheim's De Usu Numismatum. 1162, Social. Sir Matthew Hale condemns two women for witchcraft, and Sir Thomas Browne gives witness. 116S. Death. Amyraut 1164. Eng. Ch. The Five Mile Act which Parliament bribes the r^gge King to accept, forbids those who refuse to swear to attempt ^ no changes in Church or State to reside within five miles of a town or of their old ministry. 1166. French Ch. Alexander VII. orders Jansenists to submit to the Bull of 1653, declaring the Propositions to be in the Augustinus in the sense condemned. 1166. Eng. Lit. Head's The English Ro^e revives the picaresque novel. 1167. French Lit. La Bx)chefoucaId issues his Maxmis, which have been submitted to Mme. de Sabld. The Journal des Savants, the first literary and scientific review, b^ns to appear weekly. La Fontaine's Contes, followed by his Fables, 1668. The weekly dinners of La Fontaine, Boileau, Moli^re and Eacine begin. Bussy-Babutin is exiled to his estates for exposing the morals of the Court in his Histoire Amoureuse des Gaules. 1168. Art. Perrault constructs the Colonnade of the Louvre. 1169. Science. Boyle proves that a candle cannot burn nor an animal breathe without air. Hooke anticipates the undulatory theory of light. 1170. Law. Godefroy edits the Theodosian Code. 1171. Philology. Francis Junius edits the Codex Argenteus (Gothic Gospels). 1172. Social. The Plague breaks out in London and spreads to the Provinces. 1173. Deaths. Format, Poussin. 1174, Eng. Ch. Bunyan's Grace Abounding, his spiritual auto- rj^g^^ biography. ^ 1176. French Ch. The Huguenots begin to leave France in consequence of persecution. 1176, Church Hist. Sabbatai of Smyrna proclaims himself the Messiah and is widely recognised as such, but subsequently embraces Islam. 158 POLITICS [1666 773. Oermany. The Great Elector joins with Denmark to guarantee Dutch independence against France. The Great Elector divides the Cleves-Julich inheritance with the Duke of Neuburg and receives Cleves. 774. Hungaxy. A conspiracy is formed against the Emperor's govern- ment by the nobles, wno put forward the son of the late Rakoksy. Failing to secure external aid, the movement comes to nothing, and the leaders are seized and execut^, 1670. 775. West Indies. Residents in the Bermudas move to the Bahamas, which are granted to the Proprietors of Carolina, 1670, and taken over by the English Government, 1717. 776. England. Louis secretlv makes a treaty with Charles, by nam which he promises not to help the Dutch, in return for a free ^ hand in the Spanish Netherlands. The Dutch are alarmed by the advance of the French, and open a conference at Breda. Charles disbands his fleet before the treaty is signed, and the Dutch in consequence sail u^ the Medway and bum English men-of-war. The Treaty is at once signed, England retaining Dutch North America, but surrendering her last spice islands and Surinam. Meanwhile the Commons demand an inquiry into the expenditure of the money voted for the war. Clarendon protests, and the King seizes the opportunity of the Chancellor's unpopularity to dismiss him. The Commons impeach him ; but, on a hint from the King, he withdraws to France. Charles calls to his counsels Buckingham and Arlington. De Witt and Temple enter into unofficial discussions (oept), and the latter goes on a mission to the Hague (Dec.). 777. Prance. Louis, who on the death of Philip IV., 1665, claimed i)art of the Spanish Netherlands bv the Law of Devolution (a feudal aw by which property descends to the children of a first marriage), fails to obtain recognition of his claim. He therefore invades Flanders witii Turenne, and takes a number of fortresses. 778. Prance. The French capture fortress after fortress, and riggo Condd suddenly overruns Franche-Comt^. England, HoUand L^""^ and Sweden therefore conclude the Triple Alliance, negociated by De Witt and Temple. A secret article bmds England ancf Holland to reduce France, if she breaks her promises, to the position she occupied 1668] CULTURE 159 1177, Eng. Lit. The London Gazette begins to appear. 117S, Frenoh Lit Boilean's Satires attack Ghapelain, Manage, Saint- Amant, and the authors of the Romans de longue Haleine, and respect only Comeille and the followers of Malherbe, Voiture and Racan. 1179, Science. Clolbert founds the Acad^mie des Sciences. Newton uses the notation of Fluxions, and shews it in MS. to friends and pupils 1669. He measures the moon's orbit and discovers gravi- tation, of which he says nothing. He also discovers the dispersion and the compound nature of light, and explains the rainbow. 1180, Art The Gobelin l^pestry Manufactory is instituted in Paris by Colbert. 1181, Social. The Great Fire of London bums for three days, destroy- ing the city from the Tower to the Temple and from the Thames to Smithfield, St Paul's and many other churches being burnt An elaborate plan of reconstruction is designed by Wren, but is not carried out. Glanvil's Considerations concerning Witches (expanded into Sad- ducismus Triumphatus, 1681) declares the whole question of belief in the Supernatural at stake. 1182, Death. Franz Hals. 1185, French Ch. Paul Ferry, a Protestant minister at Metz, r^^^y discusses reunion with Bossuet. ■- 118i, Eng. Lit Milton's Paradise Lost, perhaps influenced by VondeFs Lucifer, Andreini's Adamo, and Du Bartas* La Semaine. Dryden's Essay of Dramatic Poesy presents the first example of perfecUv modem prose, and contains an eulogy of Shakespeare. Dryden's Annus Mirabilis. 1186, rrencli Lit Racine, a pupil of Boileau, writes his first great drama, Andromache. 1186, Science. An Observatory is established at Paris, to which Cassini is appointed, and where Romer and Huyghens work. 1187, Law. Leibnitz' New Methods of Jurisprudence introduces the sanction of a future life, and discusses duties towards God. Lamoignon compiles the Code Louis, a codification of French legis- lation. He is prevented from codifjdng the 285 Droits de Coutume. 1188, Politics. PuffendorPs De Statu Imperii Germanici attacks the Hapsbuigs and the ecclesiastical princes, and proposes a Confederation, witn a perpetual council for forei^ affairs, a fi^eral armv, the seculari- sation of the ecclesiastical principalities, the abolition of convents, and the expulsion of the Jesuits. 1189, l^eath. Jeremy Taylor. 1190. Eng. Ch. Sir Matthew Hale, on behalf of the latitudi- r^^^ narian school of Wilkins and Stillingfleet drafts a bill for ^ comprehension of all but Catholics and Socinians. The Commons, however, declare that no comprehension bill can be received. 1191. French C^. The Peace of Clement IX. permits the signature of 160 POLITICS [1668 in 1659. Louis makes the Treaty of Aix-larChapelle with Spain, to which he restores Franche-Comt^, but retains his conquests in the Spanish Netherlands. Louis has meanwhile secretly arranged with the Emperor to divide the Spanish inheritance, France to receive the Spanish Netherlands, Franche-Comt^, Naples, and Sicily, the Emperor to obtain Spain and Spanish America. 779. Portugal. By the Treaty of Lisbon, Spain recognises the inde- pendence of Portugal. 780. Switzerland. The Defensionale, or common military organisa- tion, devised 1647, is put in operation. This union, however, is rapidly broken up by French agents. 781. En^and. The Duke of York avows himself a Catholic, and piggo the King secretly announces his own conversion to Arlington, i- Clifford and other Catholics, and considers how to restore Catholicism in England. The Committee appointed by Parliament to examine the public accounts secures the dismissal of the Treasurer of the Navy. A ' Secretary at War ' is appointed. 782. Oermany. The Hanse Diet meets for the last time ; henceforth, Lubeck, Hamburg and Bremen alone retain the name of Hanse Towns. 783. Turkey. The Turks capture Crete from the Venetians, after 20 years' war. 784. America. South Carolina is founded. 785. En^and. Charles drops his demand for toleration in return ri ohq for a Parliamentary grant for eight years. •- Negociations are commenced with Louis, who sends Charles' sister Henrietta, Duchess of Orleans, to conclude an alliance. By the secret treaty of Dover, Charles promises to join in an attack on the Dutch and to support Louis' claim on Spain, if the King of Spain dies childless. In return, Louis promises troops and money for Charles' personal defence in case of need, and money during the war, in which a French fleet is to serve under an English admiral (June). Louise de Edrouaille is sent to keep Charles to his engagements. A promise to declare himself a Catholic at his convenience is confided only to Clifford and Arlington. 786. France. France allies with Bavaria, agreeing to act together in any partition of Spain or on the death of the Emperor. The Duke of Lorraine is exiled for his negociations with the Dutch, and Lorraine is occupied by the French. 787. America. Sir nenry Morgan, the most famous of the Buccaneers, 1670] CULTURE 161 the declaratioQ of 1656, without assertiog Jansen the author of the condemned propositions. MabiUon collects and edits the Acta Sanctorum of his Order. 2192. Eng. Lit. Mrs Behn's Oronoko draws a picture of tiie happiness and virtue of the negro. 1195. French Lit. Racine's Comedy, Les Flaideurs. 1194^ Science. Redi finds that maggots in meat are due not to sponta- neous generation but to the eggs of flies. 2195. Economics. Child's Observations concerning Trade and Interest urge that a low rate of interest should be fixed, allows export of cash where necessary, and thinks the Navigation Act good politics rather than good economics. 1196. Death. Rembrandt 1197. Eng. Ch. Gale's Court of the Gentiles attempts to establish riAag that Greek philosophy is a distorted reproduction of the Bible. *- 1198. Austrian Ch. Abraham a Santa Clara becomes Court-Preacher at Vienna, and by his witty and earnest sermons and books contributes to the religious revival 1199. Dutch Ch. Labadie, a convert to Protestantism, refuses to sign the Confessio Belgica. He is deposed from his pastorate at Middelburg, and forms a new congregation at Amsterdam, with the aid of Anna Schurmann, based on Quietism and Communism. The community breaks up, 1725. 1200. French Lit. Mme. de S^vi^^'s daughter marries the Comie de Grignan and receives innumerable letters from her mother. ^ossuet begins his Oraisons fun^bres. 1201. Literature. The letters of a Portuguese nun to a French oflScer appear in a French translation. 1202. Science. Malpighi studies silk-worms and other insects. Swammerdam's History of Insects. Bartholinus observes the division of a ray in Iceland spar. Vauban writes La Conduite des Sieges. 1203. Art. The Academic Royale de Musique is instituted under Lulljr, a Florentine, who introduces the style of Carissimi, which lasts till Gluck. 1204. History. Anthony Wood's Antiquities of Oxford. 1205. Deaths. Coccejus, Escobar, Geuhncx, Prynne. 1206. Eng. Ch. Jane Leade, with the aid of her master, Pordage, m aha founds the Philadelphian Society. »- 1207. Scotch Ch. Leighton, sometime Principal and Professor of Theology at Edinbuigh, becomes Archbishop 01 Glasgow. 1208. iVench Ch. Pascal's Pens^es, mutilated fragments of a great work on religion, appear posthumously. 1209. Spanish Ch. Maria d'Agreda's Mystica Ciudad de Dies. 1210. Dutch Ch. Spinoza's Tnictatus Theologico-Politicus maintains that complete religious liberty is essential to the safety of a state, G. 11 162 POLITICS [1670 attacks Panama and opens the way to the Pacific, where the Buccaneers cripple Spanish trade. Charles grants a charter to Prince Kupert and 17 others as the Hudson Bay Company. They trade specially in furs. 788. West Indies. The Treaty of Madrid formally recognises the West Indian possessions of England. 789. En^and. To mislead his ministers, the King sends r^ayi Buckingham to Paris to negociate a sham treaty, omitting *- mention of Charles' conversion, and representing all the money as a contribution to the war. 790. France. Treaties of alliance or neutrality are made with several of the German States and with the Emperor. At the same moment, the death of Lionne, the Foreign Secretary, throws the power into the hands of Louvois, the Minister of War, an advocate of an aggressive policy. 791. Holland. A defensive treaty is made with Spam. 792. Hungaxy. A plan to eject the Germans is betrayed, and con- fiscations take place. Oppressive taxes are imposed, the Constitution is abolished, and Hungary becomes a province of Austria. 793. West Indies. The Government of the Leeward Islands is sepa- rated from Barbados and the Windward Islands. The Danes settle in St Thomas. 794. Africa. France builds a fort at Whydah, in Dahomey, on the Gold Coast. 795. En^and. The King, in his need of money, refuses, pro- noBo bablv on the suggestion of Clifford, to repay the principal of the ^ Golosmiths' loan, and reduces the interest from 12 p.c. to 6 p.c. (Jan.). 796. France. Leibnitz recommends Louis to conquer Egypt and secure the monopoly of the Mediterranean trade. 797. Holland. The English fleet, without awaiting the declaration of war, attacks a Dutch merchant fleet (April) ; but the Duke of York is slightly worsted by Ruyter in Southwold Bay (June). Louis, who declares war (April), crosses the Khine and captures city after city almost without resistance. Though tunied back by the cutting of the dykes, he rejects the favourable conditions offered by De Witt. The Stadtholderate is revived for William, now 22 years old, and the De Witts are murdered by the mob. The rapid advance of the French induces the Great Elector to promise to aid the Dutch with 22,000 men, and the Emperor to ally with Brandenburg. The German armies, however, are kept at bay on the Rhine by Turenne. 1672] CULTURE 163 denies that Moses wrote the Pentateuch, and declares that miracles do not happen. 1211, Eng. Lit. Drydeu's Conquest of Granada, his masterpiece in the heroic style. The type is carried on by Growne and Settle, and a little later, by Otway (Venice preserved), Lee, Gongreve (Mourning Bride), Southeme and Rowe. Buckingham and others ridicule the extrava- gances of the heroic drama in llie Rehearsal, 1671. 1212, French Lit. Moli^re's Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme. 1213, Science. The papers of Malpighi and Grew on vegetable anatomy are read before the Koyal Society. Mayow's experiments on respiration and combustion reveal the existence of two gases in the air, which he describes though does not name. His work is for the time superseded by Bechers theory of Phlogiston. 12H. Politics. The Fundamental Gonstitutions of Garolina are drawn up on the lines of a modified feudalism ; but religious liberty is granted, probably at the instance of Locke. 1216, Fhilosophy. The Abb^ Villars' Gomte de Gabalis, a Rosicrucian romance. 1216, Social. Gom imported into England is charged 8«. a quarter between 53«. Ad, and 80^., 16^. between 44«. and 53^. 4df., and 2l5. ^d, under 44^. 1217, Eng. Ch. Penn's Great Gaae of Liberty of Gonscience. \\^i\ 1218, French Ch. Bossuet's conciliatoiy Exposition de la Foi •■ Gatholique becomes almost a symbolical book, converts Turenne and others, and is attacked by Jurieu. Quesnel, a Jansenist Onitorian, publishes his Reflexions Morales sur le Nouveau Testament. 1219, Bohemian Ch. Gomenius, the last Bishop of the Bohemian Brethren, dies. 1220, Eng. Lit. Milton's Paradise Regained, and Samson Agonistes. 1221, French Lit Nicole's Essais de Morale. 1222, Eng. Ch. The King issues a Declaration of Indulgence, r^Q^2 suspending penalties against Dissenters and Gatholics. '- 122S. French Ch. Fllchier's funeral oration on Madame de Montausier. 122j^ Church Hist. The last synod of the whole Greek Ghurch is held at Jerusalem. The creed of Gyril Lucar is condemned, though his authorship is denied by Dositheus, and the Gonfession of Mogilas is adopted. 1225, History. Gonrin^ disproves the validity of the Gharter of Lindau, the best ]^iece of histoncal criticism before Mabillon. 1226, Pohtics. PuflFendorf's De Jure Naturae et Gentium attempts to evolve a system of jurisprudence from the study of human nature. Law is derived from reason, the civil law and revelation ; that is, there are three disciplines, natural law, civil law and moral theology. Natural law confines itself to regulating external acts. The state of nature was one of peace, but political mstitutions are necessary for progress. 11—2 164 POLITICS [1672 798. Sweden. France allies with Sweden, which is anxious for money, and undertakes to make a diversion in Germany. 799. England. Rupert is defeated off the Texel, being deserted ngyo by the French fleet (Aug.). Engb'sh opinion at this point begins ^ to turn against France. Shaftesbury, who has recently learned of the secret treaty of Dover, turns a^inst the Catholic party, supports the Test Act, which leads to the resignation of Clifford and the Duke of York, and is dismissed. The Cabal is broken up, and Osborne, later Earl of Danby, becomes chief minister. The Duke of York marries Mary of Modena. 800. Prance. A secret Partition Treaty is signed at Vienna, by which the Emperor is to have Spain, the Indies and Milan, and Louis the Low Countries, Naples and Sicily ^Jan.). The Great Elector, weariea by his want of success, makes terms with France, and thus ends the first coalition. At the same time, Vauban reduces Maestricht. The war, however, now changes its character. The Emperor, Spain, Denmark, Saxony and Lorrame join in a new coaUtion gainst France. Montecuculi joins William, Bonn is captured, and the French are driven from the Rhine. The German Princes, except Bavaria, sever their connection with France. The Parliament of Paris is forbidden to make remonstrances till the royal Edicts are registered. The Man in the Iron Mask is imprisoned in the Bastille. 801. America. Frontenac reaches Quebec as Governor, builds Fort Frontenac at Ontario, and conciliates the Iroquois. 802. En^tland. Charles is compelled by Parliament to make ria74 peace with the Dutch by the Treaty of London, the Dutch ^ ¥ lying an indemnity and a^eeing to salute the English flag (Feb.). hough remaining on friendly terms with Louis, the King offers his niece, Mary, to mlliam, who refuses, expecting James to have a son. 803. France. Sweden alone remains the ally of Louis, who, in conse- quence, attempts in vain to make peace with William. Franche-Comt^ is Anally taken (May), and Cond6 fights a fierce but indecisive battle against the Dutch and Spanish at Seneff (Aug.) Turenne crosses the ^ine, defeats the Imperial troops and devastates the Palatinate. 804. Holland. The Stadtholderate is declared by the States-General hereditary in the Orange family. 805. Poland. Sobiesl^, already distinguished for his victories over the Turks, becomes King of Poland. 1674] CULTURE 165 International law is not restricted to Christian nations, since all nations form part of humanity. 12^. FhiloBophy. Camberland's De Legibus Naturae attacks Hobbes, but renews Hobbes' attempt to find an independent morality. This he discovers in sociability, which leads him to propound the common good. Glisson's De Substantia declares that substance consists of forces, self-sufficient and unrelated, and suggests the theory of monads to Leibnitz. 11i28, SociaL Colbert forbids processes for witchcraft. 1229. Eng. Ch. On the meeting of Parliament the King is com- ri avq pelled to recall his Declaration and to accept a Test Act against ^ Catholics, by which all office-holders must den3r transubstantiation and receive the sacrament according to Anglican rites. To further isolate them, the Commons pass a bill granting toleration to Dissenters, which is, however, thrown out in the Upper House by the Bishops. Many nonconformists take the test occasionally, and the practice of Occasional Conformity arises. Milton's Of true Religion, Heresy, Schism, advocates the exclu- sion of Catholics from toleration, as idolaters. 1250, French Ch. The efforts of the King to re-unite the Huguenots, who have steadily increased in prosperity and whose loyalty is now above suspicion, are rejected by a synod. 1251, Science. Huyghens works out the mathematical theory of the Pendulum. 1252, Geography. Jolliet and Marquette reach the Mississippi from Canada. 1253, Death. Moli^re. 12SJ^ French Ch. Jurieu's Traits de la Devotion. ^ ^ [1674 12S5. French Lit. Boileau's Lutrin j[the Lectern) satirises the '- ecclesiastical world in a mock heroic. His Art Po^tique systema- tises and enforces the ideas of the Satires and influences French noetry till Victor Hugo. His principles are enforced by Bossu, Bouhours, Bapin, Fontenelle. Mor^ri's Dictionnaire Historique. 1236. Art. Murillo completes a series of pictures for the Hospital de la Caridad in Seville. 1257. Archaeology. Spon of Lyons visits the Levant and Greeca His travels are printed 1676. 1258. Philosophy. Malebranche's Recherche de la V^rit^ applies Cartesianism to the philosopl^ of religion, declaring that the human mind immediately perceives God, and sees all things in Him. The work influences F^nelon, P6re Lami, Boursier and others. Knutzen publishes a letter denying God, devil and immortaliiy. 1259. Philology. A series of Greek and Latin authors is edited for the use of the Dauphin (in usum Delphini) by Huet his preceptor, and Mme. Dacier. 12Jfi. Deaths. Clarendon, Herrick, Labadie, Milton. 166 POLITICS [1675 806. En^and. The formation of definite parties is hastened by rian^ Danby's Anglican policy. Danby introduces a bill compelling •- office-holders and Members of Parliament to take an oath to attempt no alteration in Church or State. The Bill is passed by the Lords, but Parliament is prorogued while the Commons are still discussing it. No money is granted, and Louis pays the King £100,000 a year. 807. France. After brilliant campaigning in the Vosges, by which the Germans are forced to recross the Rhine, Turenne is killed (July). Montecuculi again crosses the river, but is driven back by Cond^. After the campaign, both generals retire from military life. Cr^qui capitu> lates to the Duke of Lorraine with his whole anny (Sept.). 808. Sweden. The Swedes, as the allies of France, at last attack Brandenburg, but are routed by the Great Elector at Fehrbellin and expelled from almost the whole of Pomerania (June). War also breaks out with Denmark. 809. Germany. The last Duke of Liegnitz dies, and the Emperor seizes Liegnitz, Brieg and Wohlau, and incorporates them with the kingdom of Bohemia. The Great Elector, rel3ring on the treaty of 1537, protests. 810. Hungary. Exasperated by the tyranny of Lobkowitz, the minister of the Emperor Leopold, a new revolt breaks out under Tokoli, favoured by fVance, Poland, Transylvania and the Porte, and lasts four years. 811. America. New England engages in King Philip's war, which crushes the Indians but weakens the colonists. 812. England. Louis promises not to seize Dutch goods con- fiona veyed in English ships. L 813. France. Duquesne thrice defeats the Spanish and Dutch fleets, and Ruyter is killed. The first French successes on the sea, owii^ in large part to the reorganisation of the navy by Colbert, make a deep impression in Europe. But the Duke of Lorraine captures Philipsburg, and Louis, who desires peace, sends ambassadors to Is imwegen. 814. Spain. The Queen-Mother, whose policy has been guided by the exiled Nithard, is overthrown, and Don John, who is friendly to France, becomes supreme till the Peace of Nimwegen, 1678, when the Queen- Mother returns. 815. Turkey. The war with Poland ends, Turkey obtaining part of Podolia and of the Ukraine. 816. America. Owing to the misgovernment of the governor of Virginia, Berkeley, and the harassing regulations of the Navigation Act, Nathaniel Bacon takes advantage of the danger fit)m the Indians to resist, intending to unite the colonies against the King's representa- tives. After a number of successes. Bacon dies, and the rebellion comes to an end. Edmund Randolph is sent to Massachusetts by the King to com- plain of the breach of the Navigation laws and the purchase of Maine, but in reality to find a pretext for the revocation of the charter, Charles desiring to bring the colonies under his direct control. 1676] CULTURE 167 1241. Oeiman Ch. Spinola, a Spanish Confessor of the Empress, ri 075 undertakes, at the request of the Emperor, and with the secret '- encouragement of Innocent XL, a tour throughout Protestant Germany for the purpose of reunion* He offers a new council to fix the doctrine and constitution of the reunited Church, clerical marriage, and the recognition of Papal supremacy. The scheme is approved by the Catholic Duke of Hanover, Leibnitz, and Molanus, but receives little support Spener, a Lutheran pastor in Frankfort, publishes his Pia Desi- deria, or Earnest Desires for a reform of the Evangelical Church, pro- posing private meetings for the study of the Bible, the greater participation of the laity in the government of the Church, the re- organisation of the theological training in the universities, and the lajring of stress in sermons on the inner life. The meetings which Spener holds in his house (Collegia Pietatis) are widely adopted. 1242. Italian Ch. Molinos, a Spanish priest resident in Italy, declares in his Ouido Spirituale that peace is to be found by contemplation, inward mortification, and frequent communion. 1243. Swiss Ch. Turretin and Heidegger compose the Consensus Helveticarum Ecclesiarum, the last strict Calvinist creed. 1244. Science. Leibnitz discovers the differential and integral calculus, and, next year, the infinitesimal calculus. Though in communication with Oldenburg, Secretary of the Royal Society, since 1670, he may not have known of Newton's discoverv of Fluxions. A Royal Observatory is instituted at Greenwich, and Flamsteed be- comes the first Astronomer Royal. 1245. Art. The new cathedral of St Paul, London, is begun by Christopher Wren. Grinling Gibbons ornaments the Choir. Purcell's Dido and Aeneas, the first English opera. 1246. Death. Lightfoot. 1247. Eng. Ch. Barclay's Apology for the Quakers. \\M% 1248. French Ch. Pajon, Professor of Theology at Saumur, •- expresses ultra-Amyraldist views in conference with Claude, and is attacked by Jurieu and other Calvinists. Louis institutes a fund for the conversion of Protestants. 1249. Eng. Lit Etherege's Man of Mode, or Sir Fopling Flutter. 1250. Science. Ray edits Willoughby's Ornithology. Romer measures the velocity of light by observation of Jupiter's moons, and estimates that the Sun's rays reach the earth m 11 minutes. Wiseman, 'the father of English surgery,' publishes his Seven Chirur^cal Treatises. Sydenham's Observationes Medicae study epidemic diseases and treat small-pox by the cooling method, and ague by bark. Mariotte independently discovers Boyle's law of atmospheric pressure. 1261. Death. Voetius. 168 POLITICS [1677 817. England. On the meeting of Parliament, Shaftesbury and ngon his friends question whether the prorogation of 15 months does *• not dissolve Parliament, and are sent to the Tower by the Lords. Louis now begins to intrigue with the leaders of the Opposition. The Commons vote a subsidy for the navy, and order it to be paid to their own receivers. James' daughter, Mary, is married hy the King and Danby, with the approval of both political parties, to WiDiam of Orange, who desires to draw England into the war. 818. Scotland. The Grovemment sends a body of men, known as the Highland Host, to suppress the rebels in the West 819. France. To force on a peace, Louis redoubles his eflForts and wins successes in Flanders and Lorraine, and Cr^ui captures Freiburg. The Dutch republican party clamours for peace, and sends envoys to Nimwegen. William, however, regarding the war from an European rather than a nationalist standpoint, continues the campaign. 820. Sweden. The Great Elector captures Stettin, and the Danes take Oothland and Riigen. 821. En^and. The King s intention to go to war with France, n Ayo for which Parliament votes money, yields to a secret alliance ^ with Louis. Titus Oates announces a Popish plot to murder the King and land a French army for the support of the Duke of York (Aug.^. Sir Edmund Beny Godfrey, the magistrate before whom Oates' deposi- tions are taken, is found murdered near London, and a belief spreads that London is to be set on fire and Protestants massacred. Parliament reassembles, and the flame is fanned by Shaftesbury. A new Test Act is passed, excluding Catholics from both Houses of Parliament. Coleman, the secretary of the Duchess of York, is executed. The English ambassador in Paris reveals the secret treaty, and Parliament impeaches Danby. 822. Prance. A treaty is signed at Nimwegen with Holland (Aug.). Four days later, William attacks the army of Luxemburg, but is repulsed. The French conquests are restored, and a commercial treaty is arranged. Spain renounces Franche-Comt^, and most of the barrier towns of the Netherlands to France (Sept.). 823. AfWca. Goree is ceded by the Dutch to France. French influence becomes consolidated on the Senegal, and the Dutch are confined to tiie Gold Coast. 824. En^and. To save Danby, the King dissolves the Cavalier rioyg Parliament (Jan.). A new Parliament, however, proves more ^ hostile than the old, and the King sends his brother out of the country. Danby, who is again impeached, produces a pardon fit)m the King, which the Lords neglect, but drop proceedings on his being deprived of ofiice and sent to the Tower. On the advice of Temple, the Eling appoints a Privy Council of 30, 15 being ministers, and the rest 1679] CULTURE 169 li^2. Eng. Ch. The Baptists draw up a new Confession, a mere najj recension of the Westminster symbol. ^ 1253. Dutch Ch. Owing to the strife in Amsterdam of the Cocceians and Yoetians, the magistrates are forced to interfere. The parties agree to have an equal number of preachers. Witsius, a Gocceian, attempts conciliation in his Economia Foederum. 1254^ Science. Leeuwenhoek discovers animalcules in water and in animals. 1255. Politics. Spinoza's Tractatus Politicus arrives at the conclu- sions of Hobbes, though reserving liberty of thought 1256. Fhilosophy. Spmoza's Ethics explain in mathematical form a system which starting from Descartes issues in Pantheism, phenomena heing regarded as modes of the Absolute, or Substance. 1257. Deaths. Barrow, Harrington, Spinoza. 1258. Eng. Ch. Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, largely written in pift^Q Bedford Gaol, 1660—72. I-A078 Homeck, Smjrthies, Beveridge, and Bray found Belidous Societies, or guilds for devotion and charity, which exert a wide influence for a generation. South publishes a selection of his Sermons. 1259. French Ch. Bossuet begins his discussions with Claude before Mile, de Duras, a niece of Turenne, who becomes a Catholic. Simon, an Oratorian, publishes his Histoire Critique du Vieux Testament (1689, his Histoire Critique du N.T.) which rejects the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch, and is attacked by Bossuet and many others. 1260. French Lit. Mme. de la Fayette's Princesse de Cloves, the first French novel of character, a story of the court of Hennr XL 1261. Science. Morison's Historia Plantarum classifies according to the fructifying organs and the fruit. Huyghens proposes the undulatory theory of light. 1262. Fhilosophy. Cudworth's Intellectual System, the most con- siderable work of the Cambridge Platonists, defends idealism against Hobbes. (His Immutable Morality, published 1731, maintains the independence of Ethics.) 1263. Philology. Ducange's Olossarium Mediae et Infimae Latinitatis. 1264. Geography. La Salle sets out from Canada and explores the Great Lakes. 1265. Eng. Ch. Blount, the first English Deist since Herbert, n g^g publishes his Anima Mundi, a work on Immortality, and trans- '- fates Philostratus' life of Apollonius Tyanaeus. 1266. Scotch Ch. The extremer sects, the Covenanters and Camero- nians, make their appearance. 1267. French Ch. Port-Royal loses its protector with the death of Mme. de Longueville, and its numbers are reduced by royal command. Amauld and Nicole leave the country. 170 POLITICS [1679 influential men, with Shaftesbury as President The scheme proves unworkable, and an inner council is formed in which Sunderland and Halifax exercise the chief influence. Parliament introduces a bill to exclude the Duke of York from the succession. Shaftesbury hints that Monmouth, believed by some to be legitimate, should be elected, and Parliament is in consequence dissolved, after passing the Habeas Corpus Act A new House proves still more hostile, and is prorogued. 825. Scotiand. Archbishop Sharp is murdered (May). Glaverhouse is repulsed by an armed Conventicle, which he tries to disperse at Drumclog (June). The peasants declare against Prelacy and the succession of the Duke of York, but are suppressed by an army under Monmouth. 826. Germany. The Emperor, hampered bv Cr^ui and the revolt in Hungary, comes to terms with France, which restores Philipsburg, but obtains Freiburg and a passage across the Rhine at Breisach. The Duchy of Lorraine remains in French hands. 827. Sweden. The Great Elector is forced by the Peace of St Germain to restore his conquests in Pomerania, in return for the reversion of East fUesland. Denmark and the Empire also make peace with Sweden. 828. Hungary. Tokoli concludes a truce with the Emperor. 829. En^and. During the prorogation, petitions are sent to rigoQ the King, urging him to reassemble Parliament Counter- L-''*'*'" petitions are sent by those who disapprove the Exclusion Bill. The two classes are named Petitioners and Abhorrers, soon replaced by Whigs and Tories. Shaftesbury indicts James as a recusant (June). Parhament meets (Oct), and passes the Exclusion Bill, which is rejected in the Lords, owing to the argument of Halifax that James wiU probably not long outlive his brother, that his daughters are Protestant, and that the selection of Monmouth might lead to civil war. Lord Staftbrd, the last of the victims of the Popisn plot, is executed (Dec). 830. Prance. William's Pnncipality of Orange is occupied, and the town dismantled. 831. Germany. The new Elector of Saxony, John George HL, advo- cates the formation of a league of German Princes to counteract Louis XIV. The Great Elector obtains the possessions of the Archbishop of Magdeburg. 832. En^cmd. The King dissolves Parliament, which refuses to rio«, vote supplies (Jan.), and summons another at Oxford, to avoid L^^o^ the London mob. The Whigs, fearing military intimidation, come 1681] CULTURE 171 Huet's Demonstratio Evangelica declares Greek beliefs borrowed from the Jews. 1268. Italian Ch. Segneri's Sermons are collected and published. 1269. Church Hist.^ Innocent XL condemns 65 probabibst propositions, extracted from Jesuit treatises on moral philosophy. 1270. Swedish Lit. Rudbeok's Atland identifies Sweden with Atlantis, the cradle of the human race. 1271. History. Bossuet's Histoire Universelle, written for his pupil the Dauphin, portrays the events of the ancient and early mediaeval world as the work of Providence leading mankind towards the ChurcL Burnet's History of the Beformation. 1272. Deaths. Hobbes, De Retz, Vondel. 127S. Bng. Ch. Burnet's Sacred Theory of the Earth asserts r^ogQ that the early history of the Earth was a time of perpetual ^ spring and that the Flood was due to sin. 1274. French Ch. La Salle founds the Fr^res des £cole8 Chr^tiennes for the education of poor children. Thomassin's Dogmata Theologica, a philosophic study of Christian ideas. 1275. Oerman Ch. Joachim Neander's Bundeslieder extends the Pietist movement 1276. Eng. Lit. Bunyan's Life and Death of Mr Badman anticipates the realistic novel of Defoe. 1277. Science. Borelli's De Motu Animalium founds the iatro-physical school of medicine, explaining frinctions on physical and mechanical principles. 1^8. Art. Lely dies, and Eneller becomes Court painter. Scarlatti, a pupil of Carissimi, composes his first opera and improves counterpoint and scientific technique. 1279. Philosophy. Malebranche s Traits de la Nature et de la GrAce is attacked by F^nelon and Amauld, at the wish of Bossuet, and placed on the Index as leading to the denial of freedom. 1280. Politics. Filmer's Patriarcha, written during the Civil War, grounds the absolute power of kings on the dominion granted directly by Ood to Adam and transmitted by him to the ruling sovereigns. 1281. Social. Dockwra institutes the penny post in London. Dalgamo invents a hand-alphabet for the deaf and dumb. 1282. Deaths. Bernini, La Rochefoucauld, Sivaji, Swammerdam. 128S. French Ch. The persecution of Huguenots increases, riQgi conversions being heavily punished, mixed marriages forbidden, ^ Huguenots excluded from offices and professions and doubly taxed, the churches in many cases destroyed, and emigration forbidden. Risings in the south are suppressed. Louvois quarters troops on Huguenot households till they abjure, thus commencing the Dragonnades. 1284. Eng. Lit. Dryden attacks Shaftesbury in Absalom and Achito- phel, followed by the Medal, 1682. 1285. Politics. Samuel Johnson, the chaplain of Earl Russell, asserts 172 POLITICS [1681 armed and with anned followers. The King offers to accept the Regency of the Prince of Orange for his brother ; but Shaftesbury insists on the recognition of Monmouth. Parliament is dissolved after a week's session, and public opinion, in fear of civil war, rallies to the King. In London, however, the Orand Jury of Middlesex throw out the bill for Shaftesbury^s arrest for treason. 833. France. Desiring to make his eastern frontier impregnable, and to overawe the Rhine Electors, Louis appoints local courts, known as Chambers of Re-union, to decide on the extent of his treaty rights in Alsace, the three Bishoprics, and Franche-Comt^. The Courts award to France the complete suzerainty of Alsace, and the free city of Stras- burg is suddenly seized by Louvois (Sept.). On the same day, Casale, the Italian fortress, is seized by the Duke of Mantua. The duchy of Zweibrilcken is also declared united to France. 834. Sweden. Charles XL, with the aid of the clergy and commons, expels the nobles from the lands alienated during his minority, re- organises the army and navy, and becomes an absolute monarch. Sweden and Holland form a Convention to maintain the treaties of 1648 and 1678. 835. Hungary. The system of Lobkowitz is abandoned, natives are reinstated in offices, the arbitrary taxes are withdrawn, and liberty of conscience is granted. Tokoli suspects and rejects the concessions, and is nominated Prince of Hungary by the Sultan. 836. En^ancL The King recalls James from Scotland ; and rioon Shaftesbury, who fails to induce Monmouth to take a decisive '- step, escapes to Holland (Oct.). 837. Germany. The Lea^e of Sweden and Holland is joined by the Emperor, Spain and a number of German princes. 838. Russia. The first war between Turkey and Russia ends, Russia securing part of the Ukraine and the Cossack territory. 839. America. Penn obtains Delaware Bay and the region behind, the King retaining the right to examine and annul the laws, though religious toleration is guaranteed. Pennsylvania is founded, and a constitution is drawn up by Penn. La Salle descends the Mississippi to the sea, and takes possession of the country for Louis, under the title of Louisiana. The colony which he plants at the mouth ends in disaster. 840. Africa. The Great Elector founds a fort on the Gold Coast for trade ; but the settlement only lasts 40 years. The Danes also settle on the Gold Coast 1682] CULTURE 173 the right of resistance in a work entitled Julian, to which Hickes replies in Jovian. Sherlock's Case of Resistance distinguishes between suffering tyranny and doii^ wrone at the kinc's bidding. Nevile, the closest mend and disciple of Harrington, repeats his master's teaching in Plato Rediviyus. Sydney writes or perfects his IMscourses on Government, published 1699. 12S6, Science. Papin communicates to the Royal Society an account of his steam-engine. 1287, History. Mabillon's De Re Diplomatica founds historical criticism. 1^8. Law, Stair's Institutions of the Law of Scotland. 1289. Deaths. Calderon, Conring, Nicon. 1290. Eng. Ch. Stillingfleet's Uureasonableness of Separation ri aq2 replies to Baxter and Owen, in a conciliatory manner. '- Bunyan's Holy War. 1291. French Ch. In consequence of the Pope's rejection of his claim to the Regale (the revenues and patronage of a vacant bishopric) where he does not already possess it, Louis summons a synod whicn approves the extension of the Regale and declares that the Papacy has power only in spiritual matters, that a General Council is supenor to the rope, that the Pope cannot alter the customs of the Gallican Church, and that Papal decrees are not binding till confirmed by the Church. An appeal to a future Council is exduded by Bossuet^ who regards the declarations as inopportune. The subscribers of these Four Articles are refused confirmation by the Pope, and attacked by the Spaniards D'Aguirre, Gonzalez^ Roccaberti, and other Ultramontanes, out de- fended by Bossuet. Poiret's Economie Divine, a mystical system influenced by Mme Bourignon, attacks Cartesianism. 1292. Church Hist Petrucci's Enigmi Disvelati, a work of Catholic mysticism, influenced by Molinos. D'Aguirre makes the last important attempt to prove the Isidorian Decretals genuine. 1293. Eng. Lit Diyden's Religio Laici. Otway's Venice preserved. 1294- Scotch Lit Sir George Mackenzie founds the Advocates^ Library. 1295. Qerman Lit The Acta Eruditorum, founded by Leibnitz and Otto Mencke, begin to appear at Leipsic, modelled on the Journal dea Savants. 1296. Science. Ray's Methodus Plantarum Nova divides flowering plants into monocotyledons and dicotyledons, but retains the division of plants into herbs, shrubs and trees. 1297. Art. Mansaid builds Versailles, the Trianon and the Church of the Invalides. 1298. PoUtics. Petty*B Political Arithmetic, the first attempt at com- parative statistics. 1299. Deaths. Sir T. Browne, MuriUo. 174 POLITICS [1683 841. En^and. The King confiscates the charter of the City of rigoo London, and appoints the Lord Mayor and other offices, rro- ^ vincial towns are treated in the same way by the Judges on circuit, and Tories are named members of the new corporations. Ferguson, Wildman, Rumbold, Walcot, and other old Common- wealthsmen resolve to attack the Ejuff and his brother at the Rye House, near Ware, on their return from Newmarket. The plot fails, the King returning a few days earlier than was expected, and several of the conspirators are taken and executed.^ A plan formed by Monmouth, Russell, Essex, Howiurd and other Whigs, designed to compel the sum- moning of another Parliament, is discovered. Essex commits suicide in prison, and Howard turns informer. Russell is executed, refusing to admit that resistance to the King is never lawful. Algernon Sidney is also executed, the want of a second witness being supplied by the pro- duction of a manuscript treatise, declaring the right of subjects to depose their King. Monmouth is sent into exile in Holland. 842. France. The French invade tiie Spanish Netherlands, besiege Luxemburg, and seize Trier, 1684. Lorraine is occuj^ied jpermanently. 843. Turkey. In consequence of Turkish intervention m Hungary, a war breaks out with the Emperor. The Turks, with the aid of French officers, advance to the siege of Vienna, which is defended by Stahrem- berg, but are driven off by Sobieski, King of Poland, who marches to its relief with Charles of Lorraine, Louis of Baden, and Prince Eugene. 844. Asia. Hie Dutoh are expelled from Formosa by Eang-He, Emperor of China, who also conquers Tibet The King is urged by Halifax to complv with m 004 3t by caUing a Parliament, but is dissuaded by '- 845. EnglancL the Triennial Act Hyde, Earl of Rochester, President of the Council, and receives money from France. 846. France. Luxemburg is besieged and taken, and a truce is made at Regensburg with Spain, the Empire and Holland, by which the Re- unions and Luxemburg remain in French hands for 20 years. Louis secretly marries Mme de Maintenon, his wife liaving died 1683. 847. Italy. Genoa is bombarded by Lavardin for preferring a Spanish to a French alliance. 848. Turkey. The Pope negotiates a Holy League against the Turks between the Emperor and Venice. Morosini invades and reduces the Peloponnesus, 1684-9, the Imperial armies, under the Duke of Lorraine, bein^ swelled hy volunteers from all countries except France, which subsidises the Sultan. 849. America. After a prolonged legal contest, the Massachusetts charter is annulled, and Andres, late governor of New York, assumes control 850. Aftica. England surrenders Tangier to Morocco, in consequence of repeated attacks by the Moors. 851. Asia. The East India Company builds Fort Marlborough in Sumatra. 1684] CULTURE 175 ISOO, French Ch. Ranc^, abbot of La Trappe, attacks learning ri aoq in his Saintet^ et Devoirs de la Vie Monastique. He is answered ^ by Mabillon's Traits des l^tudes Monastiqaes, and a controversy arises as to the relations of learning and piety. The King ceases to enforce the teaching of the Four Articles in schools. 1301, French Lit. Fontenelle's Dialogues des Morts. 1302, Italian Lit. Filicaja writes a cycle of odes on the relief of Vienna. 1303, Politics. The University of Oxford bums the works of Buchanan, Milton, Hobbes, and Baxter, and declares its adhesion to the doctrines of non-resistance, which are at this time maintained by Mackenzie in his Jus Regium. 1304- Geography. Dampier commences his voyage round the world, sailing from South America to the Ladrones, and returning by the Philippines, Australia and the Gape of Good Hope. The account of his voyage appears 1697. 1305. Deaths. Colbert, Owen, Isaac Walton, Roger Williams. 1306. American Ch. Francis Makennie, an Irish Presbyterian r2Qg4 minister, introduces Presbyterianism. *- 1307. Oennan Ch. The Great Elector offers a refuge to the French Protestants. 1308. Eng. Lit. Locke is expelled from Christ Church by the Dean, Doctor Fell, for his connexion with Shaftesbury, and retires to Holland, where he makes the acquaintance of the Axminians, Limborch and Le Clerc. 1309. French Lit. Bayle begins his literary review, Nouvelles de la R^publique des Lettres. 1310. Literature. The Turkish Spy, a criticism of western life and thought ostensibly by a Turkic envoy at Paris, is written by Paul Marana of Genoa, with additions probably by an Englishman. 1311. Science. Halley asks Newton to discover the orbit of a planet if the attraction is that of the inverse square. Newton replies tnat it would be an ellipse. Halley therefore persuades Newton to attack the whole problem of ^vitation. Leibnitz explains his Differential Calculus in the Acta Eruditorum, and the methoa is applied by James and John Bernoulli. 1312. Geography. Kampfer accompanies an embassy to Persia, and visits the Persian Oulf, Java and Japan. 1313. Death. Comeille. 176 POLITICS [1686 852. England. Charles dies, reconciled to the Boman Church mooc (Feb.)- James chooses as his ministers Rochester, Halifax, ^ Sunderland and Godolphin, and summons Parliament, which proves strongly Tory, in part owing to the remodelling of Corporations, by which members are largely chosen. Monmouth, supported by a number of republic^uis, lands in the west (June), and enters Taunton with 5,000 men, but is routed at Sedgmoor by Kirk, captured and executed (July). Jeffreys is sent down to the west and holds the Bloody Assize, over 300 rebels being executed and over 800 transported to the West Indies as slaves. In gratitude for this achievement, James makes Je£freys Lord Chancellor. The King appoints Catholics to posts in the army, and asks Parliament to repeal tlie Test Act, proro^ing it when it remon- strates. Halifax is dismissed, and Sunderland becomes President of the Council. 853. Scotland. In consequence of an enactment punishing with death anyone attending a conventicle, Argyle returns from his exile in Holland, and attempts to raise an insurrection, but is captured without a blow and executed. 854. Germany. Charles I., Elector Palatine, dies childless, and Louis claims part of the Lower Palatinate through the Elector's sister, the wife of his brother. The new Elector Palatine, a member of the house of Neuburg, rallies Germany to his side. 855. Turkey. Charles of Lorraine defeats the Turks and drives the Hun^urians under Tokoli back into Transylvania. 856. Greece. The tribute of children for Janissaries ceases, and the Elefts, half patriots, half robbers, spring up. 857. Asia. A French embassy is sent to Siam. 858. En^and. The King brings the case of Hales, a Catholic riooA oiBcer, before a packed courts wmch declares that royal dispensa- ^ tions suspend the penalties of the law (June). The Kin^ appoints Massey, an avowed Catholic, Dean of Christchurch, and Parker bishop of Oxford, and leaves Walker Master of University College, a recent convert, unmolested. Ck)mpton, Bishop of London, is ordered to sus- pend the Dean of Norwich for preaching a^inst Bomanism, but refuses^ on which the King appoints an Ecclesiastical Commission Court under Jeffreys, which suspends Compton. Bochester, a devoted Tory, is dis- missed for refusing to change his religion, and a camp of 13,000 men is formed at Hounslow. 859. Scotland. James orders the Scotch Parliament to repeal anti- Catholic laws> and on its refusal dispenses with them by his own authority. 860. Germany. A league to guarantee the Treaties of 1648 and 1678 and the truce of Batisbon, is concluded at Augsburg by the Emperor, Spain, Sweden, and a large number of German princes (Julv). A compromise is made by the Great Elector and the Emperor, 1686] CULTURE 177 ISI4. Eng. Oh. Bull's Defensio Fidei Nicaenae maintains, rigoe against Petavins, that the pre-Nicene thinkers were not Arian ^ but essentially Athanasian. Bull is thanked by a sjmod of French Bishops over which Bossuet presides. Spencer's De Legibus et Kitualibus Hebraeonim discusses the debt of the Jews to Ecypt and other countries, and helps to found the study of comparative religion. 1316. Irenoh Ch. The General Assembly of the dercy urge strongly the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, and after much hesitation Louis complies, prohibits Protestant worship, exiles the ministers, and destroys the churches. The step irreparably weakens the country, many of the most thriving parts of the population, despite the prohibition of emi- gration, escaping to England, the Dutch NetherWds and Brandenburg. Under French pressure the Duke of Savoy recalls the concessions granted by his father to the Vaudois. 1316. German Ch. Pfeiffer's Pansophia Mosaica asserts that all the philosophy, science and law of the ancient world were derived from Moses. 1317. Italian Ch. Molinos and Petrucci are arrested at the instance of Louis XIV, spurred on b^ the Jesuits, examined by the Inquisition, and condemned to perpetual imprisonment. In 1687 the Pope approves the condemnation by the Inquisition. 1318. Italian Lit. B^i's Bacchus in l\iscany. 1319. Science. Cohom's Treatise on Fortification. 1320. Death. Calov. 1321. French Ch. Mme Ouyon publishes her Moyen Court m AgB pour rOraison, influenced by study of St Theresa and John of ^ the Gross. With the aid of Lacombe, a Bamabite monk, she founds an institution for converts at Oex under the Bishop of Geneva. Lacombe is shortly removed and is followed by Mme Quyon. Dupin's Ancient Discipline of the Church assumes an ultra-Gallican position, which he illustrates in his Biblioth^que des Auteurs Ecd^si- astiques. 1322. Dutch Ch. Limborch's Theolo^a Christiana gives the fullest presentation of Arminianism since Episcopius. Leclerc rejects the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch, and rationalises the story of Babel, Lot's wife, and the passage of the Red Sea. 1323. Church Hist. Bayle condemns the expulsion of the Hu^enots in his Contrains les Entrer, the first systematic work of rationalist tendency. 1324. Literature. Mabillon describes his Italian journey in the Museum Italicum and the Iter Italicum. Leclerc begins his literary review, La Biblioth^ue Universelle. 1325. Science. WiUoughby's and Ray's Historia Piscium constitute the first real advance since Rondelet. Their work is developed by Artedi and Linnaeus. 1326. FhilOBophy. Abercromby's Discourse of Wit anticipates Reid's doctrine of Common Sense u. 12 178 POLITICS [1686 Frederick William renouncing his claims on Jagerndorf and Liegnitz in return for the cession of the circle of Schwiebus, in Silesia. At the same moment, however, the Austrian ambassador makes a secret compact with the Elector's son, by which the latter pledges himself to restore the circle on his accession. 861. Turkey. Charles of Lorraine storms Buda, which the Turks have held since 1541 (Sept). 862. En^Land. The King issues a Declaration of Indulgence, rioov suspendii^ff laws against Catholics and Dissenters, to whom, how- '- ever, H^ifax points out that such an indulgence, not being guaranteed by law, is of no value (April). A Catholic is nominated r resident of Magdalen College, Oxford, and the Fellows, who choose one of their own number, are ejected. Parliament is dissolved and the Corporations are remodelled. 863. France. Louis disputes with the Pope about the sanctuary which tibie French ambassador in Rome claims for his house. 864. Oerxnany. The League of Augsburg is joined by Bavaria, Saxony, Savoy, and some of the Italian states, and receives the secret approval of the rope. 865. Austria. The Emperor annexes the principalities of Liegnitz, Brieg, and Wohlau. 866. Hungary. Charles of Lorraine and Louis of Baden defeat the Turks at Mohacz and drive them out of Croatia and Transylvania. Tokoli loses prestige, and Leopold suppresses the constitution. 867. Asia. The !l^t India Company obtains independent jurisdiction and coinage, and power to build fortifications, levy customs, and enlist native miBtia. 868. Africa. Several hundred Huguenots settle at the Cape of Good Hope, but become quickly blended with the Dutch. Though their language completely msappears, their names survive in great numbers. 869. En^and. The King orders a second Declaration of Indul- r^ggg gence to be read in all churches. Archbishop Saucroft and six ^ Bishops protest, and are tried in Westminster Hall for a seditious libel, but acquitted (June 30). Meanwhile the King has had a son, widely supposed to be supposititious (June 10), and, on the day of the acquittal, Wmiam of Orange is invited to defend English liberties. William accepts, and issues a Declaration, enumerating James's misdeeds and promising to abide by the decision of a free Parliament James 1688] CULTURE 179 1327. Education. Mme de Maiutenon founds the Maison de Saint- Cyr for the daughters of the poor nobility. 1S28. Geography. Chardin's Travels in Persia. 1S»9. DeathB. Gond^, Pearson. 1S30, Scotch Ch. James's Declaration of Indulgence suspends ri 007 all penal laws^ except as regards field-preaching, wnich, however, I- continues. 13S1. French Oh. Fontenelle's Histoire des Oracles attacks the priests and oracles of classical times and, indirectly, miracles. 1SS2. Eng. Lit. Dnrden's Hind and Panther contrasts the Roman Church, which he has recently joined, with the Andican. It is parodied by Montagu and Prior in the Country Mouse ana City Mouse. 1S3S. French Lit La Bruy^re's Caract^res. ISSjt. Art The Parthenon is irretrievably damaged by the falling of a Venetian bomb into the powder stored within it 1S35. Science. Newton's Frincipia, dedicated to the Royal Society, shews that all the important characteristics of the motions of the solar system are explicable by three fundamental laws of motion and by the law of gravitation, namely, tliat every particle of matter attracts every other with a force varying directly as the mass of each, and inversely as the square of the distance between them. Hooke's claim to the discovery of the law of inverse squares is rejected by Newton. The theory is introduced into Cambridge by Clarke, Bentley, Whiston, into Oxford by Halley, into Edinburgh by Gregory. On the Continent Leibnitz, Huyghens, the Bemouillis cling to the vortex theory; and in France, despite Fontenelle, it is little known till Voltaire's return from England. It is introduced into Holland by 's Oravesande. Newton states the three fundamental laws of motion. I. Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line except in so far as it be compelled by impressed force to change that state. II. The rate of change of momentum is proportional to the impressed force and takes place in the direction of the straight line in which the force acts. III. To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Newton declares that the propagation of sound varies directly as the square root of the elastic force and inversely as the square root of the density of the medium. Hans oloane visits Jamaica, and lays the foundation of his botanical collections. 1336. Philosophy. Tschimhausen's Medicina Mentis forms a trans- ition between the systems of his friends Spinoza and Leibnitz. 1337. Deaths. Petty, La Salle, Steno. 1338. Eng. Ch. Cave's Scriptores Historiae Eccledasticae. ri688 1339.' Scotch Ch. On the news of William's landing, Presby- ^ terianism is quietly restored. 1340. French Ch. Mme Ouyon is arrested, but liberated by the 12—2 180 POLITICS [1688 abolishes the Ecclesiastical Commissioners, restores the City Charters and the ejected Fellows, and dismisses Sunderland and Petre, but refuses an offer of help from Louis, who transfers his army from the Netherlands frontier to the Palatinate and leaves William free to land in Torbay f Nov. 5). The North and the Midlands rise under Danby and Devon£uiire, and James is deserted by Churchill and by his daughter Anne. The King summons a Parliament, and proposes an accommoda- tion with William, but resolves to leave the country. He is stopped by fishermen near Sheem&ss, and brought back to London, whence he is allowed to escape (Dec. 23). William consults the Lords, the members of Charles's Paniaments, and the City, and is advised to summon a 'Con- vention. 870. France. On the death of the Archbishop of Cologne, Louis sup- ports a candidate who is opposed by the Emperor and the Pope (June). He declares war with Holland and the Empire, captures Philippsburg, overruns the Palatinate, and seizes Avignon from the Pope. 871. Turkey. The war against the Turks is resumed, and Belgrade is taken. 872. America. Andros is named Governor of the northern colonies, and revokes the charters of Connecticut and Rhode Island. 873. En^and. The Convention meets (Jan. 22), and the Com- r^Aog mons resolve that James, having broken the original contract ^ between King and People, and withdrawn from the kingdom, has abdi- cated the government and that the throne is thereby vacant. The Lords, after discussing a Regency, accept the resolution. A Declaration of Rights is prepared, and William and Mary are offered the Crown, and choose Danby, Halifax, Nottingham, Shrewsbury, and Oodolphin for their ministers. The Convention Parliament embodies the Declaration of Rights in a Bill of Rights. Owing to the mutiny of a regiment, a Bill is passed by which the troops cannot be paid without a special Act of Appropriation, and no soldier can be punished without the annual re-enactment of the Bill. 874. Scotland. Dundee rallies the Highland clans against the new sovereign, and defeats William's general at Eilliecrankie, but is himself slain (July). 875. Ireland. James, with aid from France, against which William declares war, lands at Kinsale, finding an army prepared by Tyrconnel. The Scotch and English settlers take refuge in Enniskillen and London- derry, which is relieved when reduced to extremities (July 30). The Irish army is defeated at Newtown Butler, near Enniskillen (Aug.). Meanwhile the Irish Parliament issues an Attainder, confiscating the land of about 2,000 of William's adherents (May). 876. France. Louvois orders the devastation of the Palatinate, which J revokes a declaration of war from the Diet. Though ably served by luxembourg, Boufilers and Catinat, the French armies are (mven back. 1689] CULTURE 181 influence of Mme de Maintenon, who invites her to her new foundation for girls at St Gyr and adopts her Torrents Spirituels as a handbook of devotion. At St Gyr she is brought into close relations with Fdnelon. Bossuet publishes his Histoire des Variations Frotestantes, the most powerful Catholic attack of the century, distinguishes the tenets of the Albigenses from those of the Waldenses, and calls attention to the importance of Melanchthon. 1341. French Lit. Perrault, who had, in congratulating the Eing on his recovery from illness, declared the modems superior in arts and letters to the ancients and had been attacked by Fontenelle, supports his contention in his Parall^le des Anciens et des Modernes. Boileau defends the ancients. Perrault and his adherents introduce the idea of progress into literary criticism. 1342. Oerman Lit. Thomasius delivers the first lectures in German, and contributes to the first German review. 1343. Literature. Morhofs Polyhistor, a dictionary of authors. 1344- , Education. F^nelon's ^ucation des Filles, the first work on the subject, lays stress rather on character than on learning. 1345. Deaths. Bunyan, Cudworth, Du Cange, The Great Elector. 1346. Eng. Ch. A Toleration Act allows Dissenters to worship pigog publicly on taking an oath, and permits Quakers to affirm, but '- excludes Catholics and Unitarians from its benefits. An attempt, how- ever, made at the order of Parliament, by Burnet, Tenison, Stilnndleet, Tillotson, and Beveridge, to attract the Dissenters back to the Church by the alteration of the Prayer Book fails, owing to the opposition of Convocation. Archbishop Sancroft, five Bishops, and about 400 clergy, including Een, Hickes, Kettlewell, Leslie, ana Jeremy Collier, refuse to take the oaths of supremacy and allegiance and are deprived, forming the Non- jurors, who are jomed by laymen such as Nelson and Dodwell. Two bishops are consecrated 1694, and three others, 1713. Locke's First Letter on Toleration advocates the exclusion of Catholics, as owing allegiance elsewhere, and of Atheists and Anti- nomians. 1347. Scotch Ch. The episcopal clergj are ejected, Presbyterianism is everywhere restored, and the Westmmster Confession is reimposed. All acts in favour of episcopacy are rescinded; but, though Episcopacy is abolished, the Scotch Episcopate perjpetuates itself. 1348. American Ch. Cotton Afather issues a collection of Memorable Providences relating to Witchcraft and Possession. 1349. Danish Lit. Eingo's Psahns. 1350. Politics. Locke publishes two Treatises on Civil Government, of which the first replies to Filmer's Patriarcha, and the second discusses the origin and end of government, and is designed to justify the B.evolution of 1688 and 'establish the throne of our great restorer.' The contract theory, based on natural right, allows the formation of any government except Absolute Monarchy. Frequent revolutions are prevented by the inertia of mankind. 182 POLITICS [1689 England and Holland join the League of Augsburg, and the Giand Alliance is formed. 877. America. Andros is imprisoned, William and Mary are pro- claimed, and the old charters are resumed. 878. Asia. The Treaty of Nerchinsk excludes Russia from Amurland. 879. England. The Indemnity Bill is coupled with so many m^qq exceptions that the King dissolves the Convention Parliament ^ and contemplates resignation. Halifax leaves the Government, and Danby becomes the leading minister. Parliament limits the grant of half the King's revenue to four years. Admiral Tourville is sent to invade England, and meets the English and Dutch fleets off Beachy Head (June 30). By blundering or design. Admiral Herbert keeps his ships out of danger, the Dutch in consequence being defeated. Herbert is tried and acquitted, but dis- missed from his post and replaced by Russell, brother of the victim of 1683. Tourville does not follow up his victory, and contents himself with burning Tei^moutL 880. Ireland. William crosses to Ireland, where Lauzun has arrived with French troops, and defeats James and Lauzun at the Battle of the Boyne .(J^ly)i where Schomberg is killed. James escapes to France. William and Marlborough enter Dublin, but are prevented by Sarsfield from taking Limerick. 881. Scotland. The Lords of the Articles are abolished, and the pro- cess of defeudalisation begins. 882. France. Luxembourg defeats the Dutch under Prince Waldeck, at Fleurus, but is checked oy the Elector of Brandenburg. Louis restores Avignon to the Pope. 883. Savoy. Savoy joins the League of Augsburg, but is defeated by Gatinat. 884. Turkey. The Prince of Transylvania dies, and Kiuprili nominates Tokoli and sends an army which recovers Belgrsule, Servia and Bulgaria^ owing to the withdrawal of the Emperor's best troops for the French war. 885. Asia. A fort is founded by the East India Company at the mouth of the Ganges, which, by the purchase of three villages in 1700, becomes Calcutta. 886. En^and. Marlborough, jealous of William's Dutch riggi generals, offers to James to move an address asking the King ^ to expel the foreigners, and persuades Anne to join the opposition. For this treachery he is deprived of his oflSces. The English Company, a rival to the East India Co., is established, and receives a charter, 1698. 887. Ireland. Ginkell, sent to Ireland with Mackay and Ruvigny, a French Protestant, destroys the Irish armv at Aughrim, and takes Limerick. The soldiers and officers, among them Sarsfield, are allowed to enter the French service. The Irish Catholics are promised the 1691] CULTUBE 188 Halifax's Character of a Trimmer. 1551. Law. Domat's Lois Civiles founds law on ethical and religious princides. 1552. History. Pagi's Critica in Annales Baronii, the first searchincc examination of thelntire work. ^ 1S6S, Social. Export duties on com are abolished in England, and a bounty of 5/^ is given when the price is under 48/-. Tms measure greatly contributes to the revival of agriculture. 1364. Deaths. Christina of Sweden, Sydenham. 1355. Eng. Ch. Wallis' Doctrine of the Trinity is attacked by r^gg^ Sherlock and by South, who is censured by the University of ^ Oxford for Tritheism. Bury's Naked Gospel, a Deistic work, is burnt. 1356. Scotch Ch. Lay patronage is abolished; the Act of Supremacy is rescinded ; ejected ministers are restored, and a General Assembly meets. 1357. French Oh. The Pope condemns the theory of Philosophic Sin. 1358. Eng. Lit. Dunton's Athenian Gazette anticipates the Spectator. 1359. French Lit. Furetifere's Dictionary of the French Language. 1360. History. Tillemont's Histoire des Empereurs des 6 premiers sidles. 1361. Philosophy. Locke's Essay on the Human Uuderstanding at- tacks Descartes' conception of innate ideas, and derives knowledge from sensation and reflection. Philosophy must be approached by a study of the capacities of the human mind. The work gives a psychological direction to thought, and is attacked by Norris, StiUingfleet, bishop of Worcester, and Leibnitz in his Nouveaux Essais sur I'Entendement humain. Huet's Faiblesse de I'Esprit humain declares the credibility of the axioms of reason to depend on revelation. 1362. Economics, mcholas Barbon's Discourse of Trade asserts that value does not reside in things, but arises from their relation to human needs. 1363. Death. Teniers. 1364. Eng. Ch. Boyle founds a Lectureship in Apologetics, mqq]^ on which Bentley delivers the first course, inferring a First Cause ^ firom Newton's discoveries. 1365. Church Hist. Gonzalez' Fundamenta Theologiae Moialis at- tacks Probabilism, which breaks into Equiprobabilism, Probabiliorism, and Tutiorism. Leibnitz and Molanus, with the approval of the electress Sophia and the theologians of Helmstadt, negotiate for reunion with Bishop Burnet. 1366. Eng. Lit. Antony Wood's Athenae Oxonienses. 1367. French Lit. Racine's Athalie, his last and greatest work. Perrault's Griseldis commences his fairy tales, in which he is fol- lowed by the Comtesse d'Aulnoy and Anthony Hamilton. 184 POUTics [1691 privileges they enjoyed under Charles 11. ; but the Parliament, repre- senting the EngHsh colony alone, compels the King to revoke his concessions. 888. Scotland. Military execution is proclaimed against all who have not laid down their arms and taken the oath of allegiance by the last day of the year. 889. France. Louis advances in person to the North-east frontier, and takes Mons, which William is too weak to relieve. Gatinat takes Nice. Louvois dies, and henceforth the King is served by men of slight ability. 890. Turkey. Louis of Baden meets and destroys a huge Turkish army at Szalankemen, where Eiuprili is killed. Transylvania is finally conquered, Tokoli retiring and joining the Turkish ranks, and the Estates recognise the Habsburgs as pnnces, in return for a recognition of political and religious privileges. 891. En^and. James issues a long list of names to be excepted riopft from his amnesty. Russell meets and destroys the French fleet, L"^ prepared for a.n invasion, at La Hogue. The French navy, perfected by Ooloert and his son Seignelai, begins to decline. To support the war Monta^^ borrows one million pounds, on which interest is steadily paid, and which may be regarded as the origin of the National Debt. 892. ScoUand. The Macdonalds of Glencoe, having failed to swear allegiance to William by the given date, are treacherously massacred by order of Stair, who has obtained an ambiguous authorisation from the Kinff. The indignation is so strong that Stair is dismissed. 893. Ireland. Catholics are forbidden to sit in Parliament, and severe laws deal with their worship, their property, and the education of their children. 894. Prance. Vauban takes Namur (June), which is defended by Cohom, and Luxembourg wins an indecisive victory over William at Steinkirk (Aug.). 895. Germany. Ernest Augustus, Duke of Brunswick-Luneberg, obtains the Electoral title for Hanover, in return for a perpetual aluance with the Emperor. 896. America. Massachusetts receives a new Charter. 897. En^and. The King vetoes bills for Triennial Paxlia- Mono ™ a j° 1 exclusion of placemen from Parliament L^^^^ Sunderland, who is allowed to return to Court, recommends the ^ing to lorm a homoceneous Whig ministry. 898. .rnmoe. Louis fwls to take Litoe and never appears in the field again. Catinat defeats the Dake of Savoy. Luxembourg defeats 1693] CULTURE 185 1568. Science. Leibnitz' Protogaea, a geological work suggested by his mining duties in the Han mountains. 1569. FhiloBophy. Norris' Ideal World introduces the ideas of Male- branche into Endand. His teaching is continued by Barthog^e. Oeulinz dedares extension and thought absolutely distinct, like two clocks at each instant adjusted by Ood. 1370. Fhilology. Bentley's Letter to Mill, in reference to an edition of Malalas, discusses metre and other subjects, and earns the praise of Spanheim and Giaeyius. 1371, Economics. North's Discourse of Trade maintains the unity of the world for trading purposes, declares human industry, not money, the source of wealth, and attacks restrictions on prices, interest, and the exjport of bullion. 1372, Social. Bekker and Thomasius attack the treatment of witches. 1373. Deaths. Baxter, Boyle, Fox, Pococke. 1374, Eng. Ut. Temple's Ancient and Modem Learning in- riago traduces the controversy into England, and selects for praise ^ the Fables of Aesop and the Epistles of Phalaris. 1376, Italian Lit. The Arcadian Academy is founded by Grescimbeni, Gravina, and OuidL 1376, Norwe^an Ut Bass's Trumpet of Norway. 1377, Science. Newton's papers are burnt, a blow from which he never entirely recovers. 1378, Education. William and Mary College is founded in Virginia for the training of clergy. 1379, Social. Societies for Reformation of Manners are instituted. A witchcraft fren^ breaks out at Salem. On the news of the victory of La Hogue Queen Mary transforms the palace begun by Charles U. at Greenwich into a refuge for disabled sailors. Lloyd's Coffee-house becomes an office for marine insurance. 1380. Eng. Ch. Leslie's Short and Easy Method with the r^ggg Deists. *- 1381. French Ch. Louis undertakes not to teach nor enforce the articles of 1682. Godet, Bishop of Chartres, warns Mme de Maintenon against Mme Guyon, who is in consequence dismissed firom St Gyr. She appeals to Bossuet, who reads her H& commentary on the Apocalypse and is much shocked. Bossuet, Noailles and Tronson meet at Issy, and issue a con- denmation of Mme Guyon's tenets, which, with a few changes, is signed by F^nelon. Mme Guyon promises not to write nor teach again, but breaks her promise, and is shut up in Vincennes. 1382. Eng. Lit. Hacket's Life of Bishop Williams. ' 1383. Science. Ray's Synopsis Animalium attempts a new classification. Halley explains a method of ascertaining the distance of the Sun by observation of the transits of Venus. 186 POLITICS [1693 William and the allies at Landen (July). The Palatinate is once more lay^^d. Overtures for neace made by Louifl are rejected. Louis institutes the Order of St Louis. 899. Sweden. Charles XI. is declared absolute. 900. America. An expedition against Canada is arranged, but does not succeed. 901. En^and. Following the advice of Sunderland, the Einff n^^ dismisses his Tory ministers, except Godoli)hin and Danby, ana ^ fills their places with Whigs, his chief advisers, known as the Junto, being Somers, Admiral Kussell, Montagu and Wharton. This step may be said to mark the origin of the Cabinet system, though the King regards the ministers as responsible to himself, not to Parliament.^ To guard a^nst corruption and the abuse of patronage by the Ministry, a Bill is mtroduced forbidding members of Parliament to hold any office, but is defeated. The King, however, accepts a Triennial Act, umiting the duration of Parliament to three years. The death of Queen Mary firom small-pox greatly weakens the King's position, and encourages negociations with James. On the suggestion of Paterson, a Scotch prot^^ of Montagu, who desires a safer place for the deposit of money than with the goldsmiths, the Bank of England is founaed. A loan is made to the (Government from the deposite on the promise of Parliament to pay interest. The shares are largely taken up by rich city Nonconformists. 902. France. An English expedition to Brest is defeated, owing to information secretly conveyed by MarlborourgL The English fleet proceeds to bombwl Havre, Dunkirk and other coast towns. 903. Spain. A French expedition against Spain achieves nothing decisive. Barcelona is saved by the English fleet. 904. Germany. Eonigsmarck, an officer of Geoige of Hanover and a lover of his wife Sophia Dorothea, is murdered. 905. England. Danby, Duke of Leeds, is proved guilty of nag5 corruption in the granting of a new charter to the East India ^ Company, and is forced to retire. An Act to restrain and punish bribery at elections is passed by Parliament. William revives the ' Board of Tf ade and Plantations,' the germ of the Colonial Office. 906. Scotland. A Company trading to Africa and the Indies is formed. 907. France. Luxemboui^ dies, and Villeroi, who succeeds him in command of the army in the Netherlands, bombards Brussels. Namur, defended by Boufflers, surrenders to William and Cohom, his first success in the war and the greatest triumph of his life (Aug.). 908. Italy. Casale is taken firom the French by the Duke of Savoy. 909. Turkey. The Turks defeat the Venetians at sea, and rout part of the Imperial army. 1696] CULTURE 187 1S8j^ Edaoaiion. Locke's Thoughts on Education declare that the study of individualily, the fonnation of character, and the acquisition of right methods of thought rather than the communication of know- ledge are the objects to be pursued. 1S86, Law. Leibnitz' Codex Juris Gentium Diplomaticus deserts Natural Law for Positiye Law. 1S86. Politioa. Penn suggests the establishment of an European Diet. 1587. Eng. Ch. Geoige Fox's Journal is published. ri604 1588. FrenohCh. MmeOuyon is released. F^nelon issues an Ex- ^ plication des Maximes des Saints sur la Vie Int^rieure, with the approval of NoaiUes and Tronson, but without the knowledge of Bossuet. At the same time Bossuet's Instruction sur I'Oraison appears, and dis- pleases F^nelon. 1589. French Ut. St Simon begins notes for his Memoirs. The Academy publishes its Dictionary. 1590. Art. Purcell's Te Deum and Jubilate. 1391. Science. Toumefort's Elements de la Botanique adopt the flower or corolla as a basis of classification. 1892. Education. Mary Astell's Serious Proposal for a Woman's College is combatted by Burnet and others as too closely resembling a convent. A University is founded at Halle. 1898. Deaths. Amauld, Malpighi, Puffendorf. 1894, Eng. Ch, Locke's Reasonableness of Christianity incurs ri 595 the charge of Socinianism. ^ Orabe deserts the Lutheran for the Anglican Church. 1896, Scotch Gh. The first Catholic Bishop is appointed, and the Roman Church in Scotland flourishes till 1745. 1896, Eng. Lit. The Licensing Act, imposed 1662, is allowed to lapse. Congreve's Love for Love introduces the second period of the B^toration Comedy, developed bv Vanbrugh and Farquhar. 1897, Science. Woodward founds a Geological Museum which he bequeaths to Cambridge, and publishes his Natural History of the Earth, in which he investigates fossils and the succession of strata. 1898, Education. Francke opens a School at Halle for poor children, the success of which leads to the creation of a number of other institu- tions, including a school for paying children, a training collie for teachers, and a Doarding-school for orphans. The classics are neglected, and all studies are subordinated to that of practical theology. 1899, History. Tanner's Notitia Monastica. 1400. Deaths. D'Herbelot, Halifax, Huyghens, La Fontaine, Purcell. 188 POLITICS [1696 910. En^and. The King's proposal to giye Bentinck, Earl of nggg Portland, a large estate in Wales is resisted by the Commons ^ and by public opinion. The Jacobites plan with Louis that Barclay should murder the King, and Berwick inyade England The i)lot is discoYered, and a reaction in William's favour sets in. An association to support the war and to . secure the succession of Anne in the event of nis death is joined by most members of Parliament and by many thousands throughout the country. Persons charged with treason are allowed to have a copy of the indictment and a list of the jury before the trial, witnesses are to be examined on oath, and two witnesses are necessary to the same or a similar overt act of treason. Montagu, aided by Locke's pamphlets and by Newton, reforms the coinage and introduces milled edges. 911. l^rance. Desiring to stop the drain of money and to have his hands free for eventualities in Spain, and failing to obtain peace by direct negociations, Louis resolves to break up the league, and detaches Savoy by the restitution of its territories with the addition of the fortresses of Pinerolo and Casale. The Duke's daughter is to marry Louis' grandson, the Duke of Burgundy. 912. Riusia. Peter the Great conquers Azov. 913. Montenegro. The Prince-Bishops become hereditary, i.e. each Prince-Bishop nominates his nephew. 914. En^and. Fenwick, who has plotted the King's death, is nagn executed. •■ 915. France. Weakened by the defection of Savoy, the allies accept the mediation of Sweden and open a conference at ByswicL Louis recognises William as King of England and Anne as his heir, agrees to withhold assistance from his enemies, but refuses to expel James. The Dutch are to garrison the frontier towns of the Spanish Netherlands. All places won since 1678 by either side are restored. By the treaty with the Emperor, signed a month later, Louis retains Alsace and Strassburg, but surrenders Luxembourg, Freiburg, Breisach and Philippsbui;^, and withdraws from beyond the Biiine. Lorraine is restorol to its duke, and the French claims in Cologne and the Pala- tinate are withdrawn. 916. Poland. Augustus the Strong, of Saxony, becomes a Catholic, and secures the Polish crown, defeating the fVench candidate, the Prince of Conti. 917. Russia.^ Peter sets out on a journey to the west, spending most of his time in studying the industries of Holland and England. He induces several hundred artisans to return with him. 918. Turkey. Prince Eugene takes command and routs the Turks at Zenta, failing, owing to floods, to follow up the victory. 1697] CULTURE 189 UPl, Eng. Ch. Toland's Christianity not Mysterious, professing moqa to rest on Locke, founds the Deist moyement in England, but ^ is burnt by the hangman, and disowned by Locke. lJfi2. Frenoli Ch. QuesneFs commentary is examined and disapproved by Bossuet; and Noailles, Archbishop of Paris, who sanctioned the edition of 1693, becomes farther identified with Jansenism by refusing to publish Bossuet's attack on Quesnel. IJffiS, Eng. Lit. Baxter's autobiography is published. IJ^OJ^. French Lit. Beard's Le Joueur. Mundt, a Swiss, visits and describes England, which also becomes known through the writings of the refugees, Rapin, Boyer, Desmaizeaux, and the work of Provost. IJiPS^ Philology. Hardouin declares most of the classics to be written by monks in the 13th century. IJfie, Economics. In his Essay on the East India Trade Davenant contends for free exchange at home, but remains substantially a mercantilist. lJfi7. Social. John Bellers, a Quaker, urges the formation of Colleges of Industry, the members of which are to produce and consume in common. The journeymen hatters, who have formed a permanent organisation or Trade Union, proclaim a strike. Hf)8. Deaths. Luxembourg, Mme de S^vign^, Sobieski. Hfid. Eng. Ch. Speakers and writers against the divinity of riog^ Christ are declared outlaws. ^ The Lord Mayor, after receiving the Sacrament, proceeds in state to the Congregational chapel, and renders Occasional Conformity fashionable. Wilson becomes Bishop of the Isle of Man. HIO, French Ch. F^nelon appeals to Bx)me, and is banished to Cambrai by the king, who urges the Pope to condemn him. He is supported oy the Jesuits, and the controversy reopens with Bossuet's Rdation sur le Qui^tisme, to which F^nelon replies. Bayle's Dictionnaire Historique et Critique, oased on that of Moreri, discusses religions from a purely sceptical standpoint nil, German Ch. Thomasius oenies heresy to be a punishable offence and the right of a king to punish. H12, Eng. Lit. Dryden's Alexander's Feast, perhaps modelled on Bedi's Bacchus. HIS. German Lit. Wernicke's Epigrams attack the extravagances of Lohenstein, Hoffmannswaldau, and other members of the Second Silesian School. HH, Philosophy. Shaftesbury's Inquiry concerning Virtue and Merit seeks a basis in the harmony of natural impulses. IJflS. Philology. D'Herbelot's Bibliothfeque Orientals Qraevins, with the aid of Bentley, edits Callimachus, the first critical reconstruction of the fragments of an author. 190 POLITICS [1697 919. Wert Indies. France gains the west of Hispaniola. 920. Aftioa. De Brue is sent out as director of the Senegal Company, and lays the foundations of French West Africa. 921. En^and. The army is reduced to 10,000 and a few r^^gg months later to 7,000, despite the opposition of the King. ^ 922. Ireland. To prevent the underselling of the English drapers in foreign markets, Parliament forbids the export of the Irish drapery, a new industry, practised in the North, expressly exempting, however, the frieze industry, long practised b^ the South. Molyneux' Case of Ireland being bound by Act of Parliament made in England, protests against this policy, but is burnt by the hangman. Many Presbyterians begin to emigrate to America. 923. France. Unable to secure approval for his own claims to the Spanish succession derived through his mother, eldest daughter of Philip III., and his \nfe, eldest daughter of Philip IV., and unwilling to see it fall to the Emperor, who claims through his mother and wife, younger daughters respectively of Philip III. and Philip IV., Louis XIV. accepts a partition proposed by England and the Dutch, giving the Milanese to the Archduke Charles, the Emperor's younger son by a second marriage, Naples and Sicily to France, and the rest to the son of the Elector of Bavaria, who has married the only daughter of the Emperor. The treaty is made without consulting Spain, and the King, to avoid partition, makes a will, declaring the Bavanan prince sole heir. This arrangement is accepted by the naval powers. 924. Russia. During Peter*s absence, the Streltsi, or Russian guards, revolt On his return they are dissolved and replaced by an army on an European pattern. 925. Ainoa. The Imam of Muscat establishes his authority at Mom- basa, and Portuguese authority north of Cape Delgado disappears. 926. En^and. William is forced to dismiss his Dutch guards, r^ggg and for a second time is tempted to abdicate. The Junto ^ becomes so unpopular that Russell and Montagu resign, the King returning to a mixed ministry. 927. France. The Bavarian prince dies (Jan.), and the claim of his father to stand in his place is resisted by France and England. 928. Turkey. By the Peace of Carlowitz, the King of Hungary obtains North HungaiT, Transylvania, and the greater part of Siavonia and Croatia, Polana recovers Podolia, Russia keeps Azov, Venice retains the Morea, though restoring her conquests in North Greece, and Turkey obtains the Banate of Temesvar. 929. Rxusia. A Russian Ambassador is sent to the Hague. 930. America. The export of wool or woollens to Europe or to any other colony is forbidden. 1699] CULTURE 191 1416, Eoonomicfl. Boisguillebert's Detail de la France draws a gloomy picture. His theoretical works vigorously attack mercantilism. 1417. Death. Molinos. 1418, Eng. Ch. The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge ri ggo is founded. ^ 1419, Scotch Ch. Aikenhead is executed for blasphemy at Edinburgh. 1420, French Ch. Brousson, a Protestant preacher, is executed at Monti«llier. 1421, teng. Lit. Jeremy Collier, a Nonjuror, attacks the immorality of the drama in his Short View of the Stage, to which replies are attempted by Congreve and Dennis, but which proves the death-olow of the English drama. 1422, Art The finest period begins of the work of Stradivarius, the last and greatest of the Cremona school of violin-makers. 1423, Science. Savery patents a pumping engine, which he recom- mends for clearing mines of water. 1424, Politics. Toland publishes the works of Svdney and Harrington, and contributes biographies. He also writes a life of Milton, and in his Anglia Libera declares on behalf of the old republican party that he is sat^fied with the Revolution Settlement 1425, Law. Daguesseau begins his Mercuriales, or addresses on the duties of magistrates. 1426, Social. Defoe's Essay on Projects recommends income-tax, the establishment of benefit societies, the higher education of women and other changes. 1427, Deaths. Frontenac, Redi, Tillemont 1428, French Ch. The Pope condemns 23 articles of the r^ggg Maximes des Saints, though not describing them as heretical, >- and F^nelon makes unreserved submission. 1429, French Lit F^nelon is exiled firom the Court for writing Td^aque, in which he reflects on the king's government, and the book is suppressed. The Duchesse du Maine settles at Sceaux, near Paris, and gathers round her a literary circle, including Mme de Staal, Fontenelle, Chaulieu, La Fare, and later, Voltaire. 1450, Science. Fontenelle becomes secretary to the Acad^mie des Sciences, and commences the series of his Eloges. 1451, Philology. Bentley exhaustively exposes tne Epistles of Phalans, and closes the controversy begun by Sir William Temple and continued by Boyle and Atterbury. 1452, History. The Unparteiische Ketzergeschichte of Gottfried Arnold, a pietist and mystic^ rescues heretics from misrepresentation and neglect, 192 POLITICS [1699 Iberville and Bienville lead a French expedition to the mouth of the Mississippi, and found a settlement on one of the islands. Gold 18 discovered in large qtiantities in Brasdl, which has gradually become the most valuable of the Portuguese colonies. 931. England. The Commons attack the grants of Irish land unQQ made by the King to his favourites, and tack the Bill of *- Forfeitures to the grant of supplies. To avoid a rupture, the King dis- misses Somers and recalls Goaolphin and B^chester. 932. Scotland. Colonising expeditions sent to Darien, 1698-9, suffer from the climate and want of food, and are expelled by the Spaniards, the blame of the dL^^ster being thrown on William. 933. Spain. A Second Partition Treaty is arranged by Louis and William (March). The Archduke* Charles is to have Spain, the Nether- lands and the colonies, France to obtain the Sicilies and Lorraine, and the Duke of Lorraine to have Milan. The Emperor refuses his assent. The King of Spain makes a new will, owing to pressure frx)m Harcourt, the French Ambassador and Cardinal Portacarrero, leaving his entire possessions to the Duke of Anjou, second son of the Dauphm, on condi- tion that he renounces the French throne. Charles dies (Nov.), and the will is accepted hy Louis. Philip marries a Savoy princess and enters Spain, and the Princesse des Ursins, who accompanies them, quickly gains unbounded influence over them. 934. Sweden. A league against Sweden is arranged by Patkid between Russia, which desires an outlet on the Baltic, Denmark, which desires to terminate the independence (guaranteed by Sweden) of the Duke of Holstein, and the Elector of Saxony, who, as King of Poland, is anxious to recover Livonia and Esthonia. The young King, Charles XIL, forces Denmark to recognise the independence of the Duke of Holstein and to withdraw from the League, routs the Eussiaus at Narva, and defeats a Saxon army in Livonia. 935. En^and. In consequence of the death of the Duke of n^gx Gloucester, an Act of Settlement gives the crown, on Anne's ^ death, to Sophia, Electress of Hanover, granddaughter of James I. The future sovereign must belong to the Church of England, must not declare war on behalf of his Continental possessions, nor leave England without consent of Parliament. No royal pardon can protect from impeachment, and Judges can only be removed by an address from both Houses. The Tories impeach the leading Whigs, Somers, Orford (Russell), Portland (Bentinck), Halifax (Montagu), for their share in the Partition Treaties, but find the Lords hostile. On the expulsion of the Dutch garrisons from the Barrier forts by the French, a petition is presented by five gentlemen of Kent, b^ing the Commons to support the King and to grant supplies. The Peti- tioners are arrested on the finround tnat the constituencies, having elected their members, have no rignt to interfere. 1701] CULTURE 193 and censiiFes Melanchthon for introducing Scholasticism into Protestant Christianity. 143s. Geography. De lisle's Maps are nublished, aided by Cassini, who perfects the measurement of longituae. US4. JDeatha. Domat, Racine, Stillingfleet, Temple. [1700 14S5. Eng. Ch. A severe Act is passed against Catholics, for- bidding a priest to exercise his functions, or a Catholic to hold, buy or inherit property, or to have his children educated abroad. IjiSG. French Gh. Bossuet and Noailles preside over an Assembly of the French Church which condenms Probaoilism and the Jesuit policy in regard to Chinese ceremonies. 1437. German Ch. The plan of the King of Prussia to unite his Calvinist and Lutheran subjects on an Anglican model is supported by his chaplain, Jablonski, Leibnitz and Archbishop Sharp. The liturgy is translated, and Dodwell urges the adoption of episcopacy in his Parae- nesis to Foreigners. The negociations, however, are ended by the death of King Frederick, 1713. 1458, Dutch Gh. Van Espen's Jus Ecclesiasticum, an exposition of Gallican principles, is placed on the Index. 1459. Church Hist. Hyde's Religio Persarum, the first competent account of Zoroaster. Eisenmenger attacks the Jews in his Entdecktes Judenthum. 1440. Eng. Lit. The Cottonian Library is presented to the nation. 144^- Science. An Academy of Science is founded in Berlin by the influence of Leibnitz, who is appointed its first president. Sauveur measures and explains musical vibrations. 144^' Education. A college is founded at Newhaven, Connecticut, and called after Yale, who bequeathes his fortune and library to it. 144^. Social. Sewall's Selling of Joseph, the first American protest against slavery. 14jU. Deaths. Dryden, De Banc^. 1445. Eng. Ch. Bray founds a mission branch of the Society ryjM for Promoting Christian Knowledge for America, which is ^ chartered as the Society for the Propagation of the Gfospel. Shower's Letter to a Convocation Man, urging the right of meeting and debate, is attacked by Wake, but supported by Atterbury, to whom Burnet, Kennett ana Wake reply. Convocation is ^owed to meet, but noisy disputes take place. 1446' Church mat. Mechitar, an Armenian monk, who has become a Catholic, founds the order of the Mechitarists in Venice, where thev print Armenian works. ^ a. 13 194 POLITICS [1701 William signs the Orand Alliance with the Dutch and the Emperor, to restore the Dutch control of the barrier fortresses, to secure the Milanese for the Emperor, and to prevent the union of France and Spain (Sept.). At the same moment, James 11. dies, and his son is acknowledged King of England by Louis. William promptly dissolves Parliament and obtains a Whig majority. 936. Italy. Prince Eugene attacks the Milanese and defeats Villeroi. 937. Germany. The Elector of Brandenburg is authorised to call himself King of Prussia, on condition of joining the Emperor against France. 938. Sweden. Charles defeats the Saxons and Poles and takes Warsaw. 939. England. William dies from an accident, and Marl- n7Q2 borough, Godolphin and Nottingham become the chief advisers ^ of Anne. War is declared by the Orand Alliance. 940. Scotland. In accordance with the wish of the late King, Com- missioners meet to discuss terms of union between England and Scotland, but fail to agree on matters of trade. , 941. France. Marlborough, who commands in the Netherlands, takes Li^ge and Spanish Guelderland. Si)anish galleons are destroyed in Vigo Bay, and the French and Spanish fleets are defeated. 942. Germany. The Elector of Bavaria declares war against the Emperor. 943. Holland. The Stadtholderate lapses, and Heinsius becomes Grand Pensionary. 944. Sweden. Charles attacks Augustus and reduces the chief cities of Poland. 945. West Indies. Benbow is wounded by the French in the West Indies and disobeyed by his captains^ who, however, are court- martialled. 946. England. A disputed election at Aylesbury produces a nnM conflict between the Houses. L-^/uo 947. Scotland. The Parliament resolves that the King of England may not declare war without its consent, and that it will name a suc- cessor from the family of Sophia, but not that member selected by Eiu^land, unless satisfactory assurances are given in regard to religion ana trade. 948. France. Marlborough takes Bonn and drives the French from the Electorate of Cologne. Villars joins the Elector of Bavaria, and repulses two Austrian armies, Tallard at the same time recovering ground in Alsace. Savoy and Portugal, however, desert the French dliance, and the Protestants revolt in the Cevennes, under Chevalier. 949. Russia. Peter founds St Petersburg, and creates a navy. 950. Sweden. Charles continues to take towns in Poland and West Prussia. Patkul renews the Russian alliance, and a Russian army joins Augustus. 1703] CULTURE 195 1U7. Eng. Ut. Defoe defends King William in his poem, The True- bom Englishman. HJfi, Economics. The anonymous author of Considerations on the East India Trade first completely discards Mercantilist theories. No further progress is made in Economics until Himie. HJfi, Eng. Ch. Defoe's Short Way with Dissenters satirises rynr^ the sentiments of extreme High Churchmen. • I- H50. French Gh. A Cas de Conscience, in which a cleric confesses on his death-bed that he has never believed the Church infidlible in a question of fact, resuscitates the Jansenist Controversy. The attitude of 'respectful silence' is approved by 40 doctors of the Sorbonne. H51. Dutch Ch. The apostolic vicar, Peter Kodde, Archbishop of Utrecht, declaTCs for the Jansenists and is suspended by the Pope. The Chapter, however, refuses to recognise the Pope's nominees and is encouraged in its resistance by the States-General. H5%. Russian Gh. The Patriarchate of Moscow is abolished. U5S. English Lit The Daily Courant, the first daily paper, is founded lJi54, American Lit. ^ Cotton Mather's Magnalia, a history of religion in the American colonies. i4^5.^ Philosophy. Bishop Eing^s Origin of Evil attempts to reconcile divine goodness with omnipotence, and is answered by Bayle. 1J^6, Social. The Asiento Guinea Company is formed to transport negroes to Spanish America. i^7. Death. Hooke. H58. Eng. Ch. A bill to prevent Occasional Conformity, [1703 recently practised by Abney, the Lord Mayor, and others, passes ^ the Commons but is thrown out by the Lords, where the Whigs are in a majority and do not wish to alienate the Dissenters. Nelson's Fasts and Festivals of the Christian Church. 1J^9, History. Mabillon commences the Annals of the Benedictine Order (completed by Mart^ne), and replies to Germon's sceptical attack on the JDe Ke Diplomatica. H60, Philology. Hickes' Orammar of the old Northern languages, Icelandic, Anglo-Saxon, Gothic. IJifil. SociaL By the Methuen Treaty, Portugal admits Endish manu- fisLctures, and England admits port wme at a lower duty than French wines. Port becomes the popular drink Ue2. Deaths. Pepys, St fivremond, Wallis. 13—2 196 POLITICS [1703 951. Hungary. • Rakoksy, son-in-law of TokoH, leads a revolt, aided by Louis XIV. 952. Portugal. The Methuen Treaty draws Portugal into a close alliance with England. 953. England. Nottingham is dismissed, and Harley and m^qa St John enter the Government, and aid in defeating the Occa- ^ sional Conformity Bill. 954. Scotland. In view of the danger abroad, the Queen assents to the Aqt of Security. England, however, retaliates by depriving Scotch residents of their rights under the Post-Nati decision until the English Settlement is adopted in Scotland. 955. Germany. Owing to danger to Vienna from the successes of the Elector of Bavaria, Manborough leaves a small force in the Netherlands and marches to the Danube, drives back the Elector, joins Eugene, and defeats Tallard, Marsin and the Elector of Bavaria at Blenheim. Bavaria is overrun, French power in Germany is brought to an end, and the prestige of French arms is destroyed. 956. Spain. The Archduke Charles, with the consent of the allies, claims the throne of Spain, and is conveyed in the English fleet to Lisbon, the first foothold being won at Gibraltar by Admiral Rooke. 957. Sweden. Augustus is aeclared deposed, and Stanislas Leczynski elected King of Poland, by the will of Charles. 958. Germany. The Celle dominions fall to the Elector of p^^qr Hanover. »" 959. France. Owing to the opposition to the wishes of Marlborough and Joseph, the new Emperor, oy Louis of Baden, the Allies give up their plan of invading France, and Marlborough returns to the Netherlands. 960. Italy. The Allies are beaten back by Venddme. 961. Spain. Gibraltar is successfully defended against the French and Spanish, and Barcelona is captured by Lord Peterborough, on which Catalonia, Valencia and Aragon recognise Charles. 962. Africa. The Husseinite dynasty of Beys is founded in Tunis^ in virtual independence of the Sultan. 963. England. The article of the Act of Settlement excluding q^qa placemen is modified, the holder of an office created before 1705 ^ being henceforward allowed to retain it on re-election. 964. France. Marlboroudhi defeats Villeroy at Bamillies (May) and sweeps the French out of Flanders, where the Archduke Charles is pro- claimed King. Louis' proposals for peace are rejected. 965. Germany. The Electors of Bavaria and Cologne are deprived of their dominions. 966. Italy. Eugene joins the Duke of Savoy, routs the French who are besieging Turin, and drives them out of Italy. 1706] CULTURE 197 H68, Eng. Ch. Queen Anne surrenders the claim of the crown ryir^ to first-fruits and tenths as a provision for the poorer clergy. ^ Clarke's Being and Attnoutes of Ood attacks Hobbes firom the standpoint of the ontological argument. Swift's Tale of a Tub, a dialc^e of Catholic, Calvinist and Lutheran, bitterly satirises the sectarian spirit. Matthew Henry's Exposition of the Old and New Testament. Toland's Letters to Serena (the Queen of Prussia) discuss the growth of belief in immortality. 1464. Asiatio Ch. Clement Xl. sends a legate to report on the missions, and in consequence condemns several of the Malabar and Chinese Kites. Christian missions in the East are henceforth less successful. 1466. Eng. Lit. Defoe begins the Review, which appears till 1713, a political and miscellaneous journal entirely written by himself, under the patronage of Harley. Swift's Battle of the Books, suggested by the discussion of ancient and modem learning. 1466. French Lit. The first European translation of the Arabian Nights is made by Galland. 1467. American Lit. The Boston Newsletter, the first American paper, is instituted 14^8, Science. Newton's Optics explain and defend the corpuscular or emission theory of light, and reject the wave theory, chiefly on account of its inability to explain the rectilinear path of rays. 1469. History. Clarendon's History of the Rebellion. 1470. SociaL Beau Nash becomes Master of the Ceremonies at Bath. 1471. Deaths. Bossuet, Bourdaloue, Locke. 1472. Eng. Ch. The struggle between the Lower House of rionc Convocation and the Bishons, creates a panic in the country, ^ and both Houses declare tnat the Church is not in danger. 1473. French Ch. At the demand of Louis XIV., Clement XL issues the bull, Vineam Domini, reasserting the heretical character of Jansen's teaching, and thus destroys the Peace of Clement IX. 147 4> Science. Halley conjectures that a comet seen 1682 was identical with comets seen 1456, 1531, 1607, and predicts its return in 1758. Newcomen improves the steam-engine by forming a vacuum under the piston. A machine for the raising of water is set up at Wolver- hampton 1711. 1475. Art. Vanbrugh designs Blenheim for the Duke of Marlborough. 1476. Politics. Thomasius' Fundamenta Juris Naturalis et Gentium distinguishes between law and ethics, the duty of the State being to secure happiness, not morality. 1477. Education. Moscow University is founded by Peter the Great. 1478. Deaths. James BemoniUi, Spener. 1479. American Ch. The first Presbytery is organised at ryj^ Philadelplua. ^ 198 POLITICS [1706 967. Spain. Philip, aided by a French fleet, in vain attempts to recapture Barcelona. Ruvigny, Earl of Galwav, occupies Madrid with Eudish and Portu- guese troops, and the Archduke Charles is proclaimed King. They withdraw on the news of the approach of reinforcements under Berwick, a son of James II. 968. Sweden. The Swedes rout a superior army of Saxons, Poles and Russians at Frauenstadt Charles marches into Saxony and encamps at Altranstadt, near Leipsig, and compels Augustus to acknowledge Stanislas and to surrender Patkul, who is executed as a rebeL 969. En^and. The royal veto is for the last time exercised. ri707 970. Scotland. Largely owing to Godolphin and Harley, and ^ despite the opposition of Belhaven and Fletcher of Saltoun, the Union is accomplished. England pays £400,000 to cancel the Scotch debt and as indemnity for the Darien shareholders, and concedes free trade and commercial equality. Scotland retains her Church, her law and her fortresses, and sends 45 members to the Lower House and 16 to the Upper. No new Peers are to be created. 971. France. An attempt to take Toulon by a joint attack of Eugene on land and Sir Cloudesley Shovel by sea rails, Shovel being wrecked and drowned off the Scilly Isles on his return. 972. Spain. Ruvignv is routed at Almanza by Berwick, and Catalonia alone holds out for Charles. 973. Germany. Prussia obtains Neuch&tel by inheritance. 974. Sweden. Louis and Marlborough urge Charles to intervene in the war ; but he refrises, and leaves Altranstodt. 975. Hungary. Rakoksy declares the deposition of the Ha^burss. 976. Asia. Aurungzebe dies, and the Moghul djmasty rapidly decays. The Peshwa of the Mahrattas builds up a confederacy at Poena. Russia takes E[amskatka. 977. BSngland. The Whigs expel St John and Harley, the ry^^ latter of whom has been intriguing against them with the aid of *- his cousin, Mrs Masham, who displaces the Duchess of Marlborough in the confidence of the Queen. Somers and Walpole join the Ministry. The Old and New East India Companies are united. Stanhope and Leake capture Sardinia and Minorca. 978. Scotland. The Pretender sets out on an invasion with a French fleet, which is put to flight by Byng at the mouth of the Forth. 979. France. Vend6me and Burgundy are routed at Oudenarde by Eugene and Marlborough (July), Lille is taken from Boufflers after a long siege, and the whole of Flanders submits. 980. Italy. The Emperor takes the Duchy of Mantua. 981. Sweden. Charles sets out for Moscow, but turns south owing to a promise of help by Mazeppa. On reaching the Ukraine he flnda Mazeppa is powerless. 1708] CULTURE 199 1480. Eng. Lit Defoe's Apparition of Mrs Veal. 1481. Philology. Schultens Use of Arabic in the Interpretation of Scripture shows the comparative value of the Semitic tongues. 1482. Education. The first Real-Schule is founded at Halle by Ghristoph Semler, a follower of Francke, for instruction in mathematics and applied science. The curriculutn is extended by J. J. Hecker. 1483. Art. Schliiter designs the Arsenal at Berlin and the Palace at Charlottenburg. 1484. Deaths. Bayle, Evelyn. 1486. Eng. Oh. Watts' hymns largely supersede the compo- 1-1707 sitions of Tate and Bradv, Sternhold and Hopkins. ^ i486. Oerman Ch. Hollaz' Ezamen Theologicum, the last great dog- matic work of orthodox Lutheranism. Thomasius leaves the Pietist movement. 1487. Ohnroh Hist, dement XL excommunicates Joseph I. for his dealings with Parma and Piacenza, over which the Pope claims suzer- ainty. The Emperor, however, resists, and the Pope yields. 1488. Science. Stahl's Theoria Medica Vera declares that while animals are merely machines, man possesses an Anima, which performs the ordinary functions of animal life, and which attempts by illnesses to rid itself of morbid influences. 1489. Fhilology. Mill's New Testament, based on Walton's Polyglot, notes 30,000 various readings. 1490. Economics. Vauban's Dime B.oyale attacks exemptions and pleads for a uniform land and income tax. The book is burnt by order of the King. 1491. Dea&8. FiUcaja, Mabillon, Vauban. 1492. Scotch Oh. Simson begins to teach Arianism. ri708 149s. French Ch. Saurin's Sermons are collected, and are ^ widely read by Protestants. 1494. French Lit. Lesage's Turcaret, a comic drama, influenced by Spanish models. 1495. Italian Ut. Gravina's Delia Ragion Poetica contends that the idea of a literary work is more important than it^ form. 1496. Science. Boerhave's Institutiones Medicae trace disease to the vitiation of the fluids of the body, and develope the doctrines of in- flammation, obstruction and plethora. 1497. History. Bingham's Antiquities of the Christian Church. 1498. Geography. Jesuit missionaries survey China, and make an accurate map. 1499. Philology. Montfauf^n's Pal^ographie Grecque applies Mabillon's method to Greek. 1600. Deaths. Beveridge, Tournefort. 200 POLITICS [1709 982. En^and. Sacheverell preaches before the Lord Mayor n vng (Nov.), reflecting on the Revolution, decrying the toleration of *- Dissenters, and denouncing the Ministers as traitors to the Church, and is impeached. Marlborough begs to be made Captain-General for life, but is refused. 983. Franoe. Louis undertakes^ that his grandson shall surrender Spain, but refuses to promise to aid in his expulsion. When the allies insist on the latter point, he appeals to the nation. A new army is formed, and Marlborough and Eugene, who defeat Villars at Malplaquet, lose more heavily than the French. 984. Sweden. Charles is crushed by Peter at Pultowa, and takes refuge at Bender. Poland and Denmark renew their alliance with Russia, which completes the conquest of Esthonia and Livonia, and Augustus recovers the crown of Poland. 985. Asia. Russian prisoners are first sent to Siberia. 986. En^and. At Sacheverell's trial, the Whigs make a rj„jQ declaration of Revolution principles, and Sacheverell replies in »- a speech composed by Bishop Atterbury. The popularity of the Doctor increases, ana Dissenters' chapels are attacked. The sentence of the Lords, ordering the sermon to be burnt and silencing Sacheverell for three years, is regarded as a Whig defeat, and encourages the Queen to dismiss her ministers and to recail Harley and St John. The new Parliament proves strongly Tory, and the new ministers open secret negotiations with France, on the basis of leaving Spain to Philip. Swift joins the Tories. 987. Prance. A Congi-ess opens at (Jertruydenburg, but fails owing to Louis' refusal to aid in expelling his grandson. Meanwhile the frontier fortresses are taken by the allies. 988. Spain. Charles is reinforced by English troops under Stanhope and Austrian troops under Staremberg, takes the oflfensive and enters Madrid, but is quickly forced to evacuate it. Vend6me enters Spain and defeats Stanhope at Brihuega and Staremberg at Villa Viciosa. 989. Russia. Charles XIL persuades the Sultan to declare war against Russia. 990. America. An English fleet sent to take Quebec fails, but captures Port Royal and changes its name to Annapolis. 99L En^and. The Whig Peers vote for the Occasional Con- rj^^j^j^ formity Bill, in order to secure the support of Nottingham for ^ the war ; and Harley creates 12 peers. Meanwhile Harley has secretly sent Gautier and the poet Prior to France, and signs preliminaries of peace. To exclude the Whigs, who are mostly traders, the Government imposes a qualification of £600 a year in land for county members and £200 a year in land for borough members. 1711] CULTURE 201 1501. French Oh. Port-Koyal des Champs, dissolved by the vyrr^ Pope, 1708, is demolished and its members disponed. The ^ corpses are disinterred, and the Church demolished. Archbishop Noailles deserts the Jansenist cause. 1602. Eng. Ut. Pope's and Ambrose Philips' Pastorals. Steele's Tatler, a literary |>eriodical to which Addison contributes. Bowe publishes the first critical edition of Shakespeare. Prior's poems. The first Copyright Act is passed. 160S, Science. Berkeley's New Theonr of Vision asserts that the eye only conveys sensations of colour, and that perceptions of form, and distance are gathered by touch. 1504. History. Strype's Annals of the Beformation. 1506. Death. Bull. 1506, Dutch Ch. Gichtel, a mystical German ascetic resident \yn^Q in Amsterdam, dies, leaving a small band of Gichtelians or '- Angelic Brethren. 1507, Eng. Lit. Swift's Journal to Stella berins (1710—14). Swift, Prior and other Tory writers edit the Examiner. Bentley's struggle with the Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he is Master, begins. 1508, French Lit. Madame de Lambert commences her Salon, which is fi^quented by Fontenelle, Abb^ St Pierre, D'Argenson, Montesquieu, Marivaux. Bamsay visits F^nelon, becomes a Catholic, remains with him till his death, and writes his life. 1509, Art. Handel arrives in London and produces his opera Binaldo, 1711. Bottiger manufactures hard porcelain and becomes director of a factory at Meissen near Dresden. 1510, FMlosophy. Leibnitz publishes his Th^odic^e, an attack on Bayle suggested by discussions with the Electress of Hanover and Sophia Cluirlotte, Queen of Prussia. Berkeley's Principles of Human Knowledge develope the theories of Malebranche. Vico's De Italorum Sapientia explains his doctrine of metaphysical points or centres of force, which is afterwards adopted by Boscovitch. 1511, AgrictQtnre. Enclosures for tillage become firequent, in part owing to the bountv on export. 1512, Social. F^nelon's M^moire sur la Situation d^i)lorable de la France en 1710 denounces the power of the King, and his Examen de Conscience sur les Devoirs de la Boyaut^, composed for his pupil the Duke of Burgundy, recommends the summoning of the States-General. 151S, Eng. Oh. Whiston, who has been deprived of his post at r^fn Cambridge, 1708, pleads in his Primitive Christiani^ Bevived ^ for the addition of the Apostolic Constitutions and Clementine Becog- 202 POLITICS [1711 Harley forms the South Sea Company, to which is promised the monopoly of trade with Spanish South America. 992. Jrance. The Emperor dies childless, and tiie Archduke Charles, who is elected, recalls nis troops. Marlborough is not supported from home, and, after breaking through Villars' hues at Bouchain, is re- called. 993. Hungary. The treaty of Szathmar ends the Rakoksy revolt. The Hapsburgs retain Transylvania and the crown of Hungary, and the Emperor promises to respect the Magyar liberties and Protestantism. 994. Riuna. Peter advances south, but is not met by tiie allies he expects, and hastily makes peace. He restores Aeov, destrovs Russian fortresses in Turkey, and promises not to meddle with Poland. Peter creates the Senate for judicial and administrative duties. 995. France. The diplomatists meet at Utrecht. Ormond noio receives orders forbidding him to fight, but directing him to con- *- ceal these orders from the Dutch. They aro, however, communicated to the Dutch, who aro defeated at Denain by Villars, and, thinking it impossible to carry on a war without England, withdraw. The Duke of Burgundy, who has become heir by the death of the Dauphin, 1711, dies, followed by his eldest son. His second son, Louis, aged two, becomes heir. 996. Switzerland. The second Vilmergen (or Toggenbuig) war breaks out, and the Protestant Cantons regain supremacy. 997. Denmark. The Danes take Schleswig from the Duke of Holstein- Gottorp, and conquer the Swedish duchies of Bremen and Verden. 998. England. The Tories, seeing the health of the Queen is nyio failing, proteose the succession of the Pretender ; but his refusal ^ to change his religion splits the party. ^ By the treaty of Utrecht, the Stuarts are excluded from France, the Protestant Succession guaranteed, and the possession of Gibraltar and Minorca confirmed. The Asiento allows the dispatch of one ship yearly to the Spanish Colonies, and transfers the monopoly of shipping slaves to Spanish America from France to England for 30 years. 999. America. Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Acadia, and Hudson's Bav Territory are ceded by France to England. France retains the right of fishing on the east of Newfoundland. 1000. Spain. Philip renounces his claim to the French throne, but retains Spain and the Indies. The Catalans are deserted. 1001. Netherlands. The Spanish Netherlands are to be given to Austria; but the barrier fortresses are ceded to the Dutch, France regaining Lille and a few other towns. 1002. Savoy. The Duke of Savoy regains his territories and receives Sicily, with the title of King. 1003. Oexmany. Prussia receives from France Upper Guelderland, and the recognition of her possession of Neuch&teL 1713] CULTURE 203 iiitions to the Canon. He leaves the Church of England and joins the General Baptists. 1514. Scotch Ch. Greenshields, an Episcopalian, uses the English Liturgy in Edinburgh and is condemned by the Court of Session ; but the decision is reversed by the House of Lords. 1515. Eng. Lit. Pope's Essay on Criticism, an adaptation of the ideas of Boileau. Steele and Addison edit the Spectator, to which Budgell contributes. Swift's Conduct of the Allies attacks the war. 1516. Art. The Zwinger is built at Dresden by Poppelmann in a style of exaggerated rococo. 1517. French Lit. CMbillon's Bhadamiste et Z^nobie. 1518. PhilOBophy. Shaftesbury's Characteristics of Men and Manners, written from the standpoint of Deism, point out the excellence of virtue without regard to rewaids and punishments. Ridicule is declared to be a test of truth.. 1519. Fhilology. Bentley edits Horace. 15^0. Deaths. Boileau, Ken. 15^1. Eng. Ch. Clarke's Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity be- r^y^g comes the text-book of modem Arianism. *- 1522, Scotch 'Oh. In opposition to the feeling of the Church, an Act restores the old rights of lay patronise, but is not recognised by strict Presbjrterians, as violating the Act of Security. 1525. Church Hist. Mechitar's Order for uniting Armenians to the Roman Church and for the study of Armenian literature and history is confirmed by the Pope. 1524,^ Eng. tait. Pope's Bape of the Lock, a mock heroic modelled on Boileau's Lutrin. Arbuthnot's John Bull, a political satire, modelled on Swift. A Newspaper Stamp Act is passed, and many journals are crushed. Addison contributes his criticisms of Milton to the Spectator. 1526. Art. Crousaz' Traits du Beau, the first French discussion of aesthetics. 1626. Philosophy. Wolff begins the literary exposition of his system, an adaptation of Leibnitz' determinism and optimism, without the doctrine of monads. 1527. Social. The last execution for witchcraft in England takes place. 1528. Death. Cassini. 1529. Eng. Oh. Anthony Collins, the friend of Locke, publishes ri 71 o a Discourse on Freethinking, which is attacked by Bentley, Swift ^ and many others. Gibson's Codex Juris Ecclesiastici Andicani, a comprehensive stud^ of the legal rights and duties of the English clergy, and of the constitution of the Church. 15$0. French Ch. The BuU Unigenitus, procured bv the King's Confessor, Le Tellier, condemns 101 propositions from Quesners Jan- 204 POLITICS [1713 1004. Austria. The Emperor refuses to accept the Treaty, but is forced by Villars to come to terms. The Emperor brings forward but does not publish the Pragmatic Sanction, fixing the succession, in default oi male heirs, on his daughters. 1005. Sweden. The Swedes defeat the Danes, but are defeated by tiie Russians. Danes and Poles invade Pomerania, and Prussia occupies Stettin. 1006. En^and. Harley is driven from office ^July 27). The ^yj^^ Queen is taken ill ; but Somerset and Argyle, suddenly appearing ^ in the Council, secure the appointment of Shrewsbury as Treasurer in succession to Harley. The Queen dies (Aug. 7), and the Elector of Hanover is proclaimed George I., his mother, Sophia, having died a few weeks earlier. The King dismisses the Tories, and calls Townshend, Stanhope, and Walpole to office. Being unable to understand English, the King does not appear at meetings of the Cabinet. 1007. France. The Duke of Berry dies, and Orleans, the King's nephew, becomes heir to the Begency. Louis confers the rank of pnnces of the royal blood on his two sons, Maine and Toulouse, declares them heirs, and makes a will appointing Maine guardian of the heir, and a Council of Begency of whicn Orleans is to be president. 1008. Germany. The Emperor makes peace with France at Bastadt, by which he receives as his share of the Spanish Empire Naples, the Milanese, Sardinia, Mantua and Breisach. The Electors of Bavaria and Cologne are restored, and the Electorate of Brandenburg is recog- nised. France restores all conquests east of the Bhine. The Emperor, however, does not recognise the Spanish King. France makes a secret treaty with Bavaria, promising to support the Elector if he becomes a candidate for the Empire. 1009. Spain. Barcelona is stormed by Berwick, and Catalonia deprived of her privileges. Philip marries Elizabeth Famese, and Alberoni becomes chief minister. Mme des Ursins, the representative of French influence, is expelled. 1010. Sweden, Charles XII. returns from Turkey, and Prussia, Saxony, Denmark and Bussia ally against him. 1011. Africa. Tripoli becomes independent of Constantinople. 1012. England. The new Parliament impeaches Bolingbroke, r,«|K Ormond and Harley for secret neffotiations with France previous L-'-'"'-^ to the peace. The two former flee to France, where Bolingbroke, who defends himself in his Letter to W^pdham, enters the service of the Pretender. Harley, who remains, is imprisoned for two years. The Biot Act is passed. 1716] CULTURE 205 senist Reflexions. Noailles and others protest, and the Church is divided into Acceptants and Appellants. Mme Jonrdan, a Jansenist, institutes the Filles de Sainte-Marthe, established as a Congregation 1722, for the education of girls and the care of the sick. 1631, French Lit. Hamilton's M^moires de Grammont F^nelon's Lettre h, TAcad^mie Fran^aise approves the composition of a Dictionary, and discusses the duties of the Academy as arbiter of literary taste. 1632, Science. Boger Cotes edits a second edition of Newton's Prin- cipia, and maintains the doctrine of action at a distance. 1633, Philosophy. Collier's Non-Existence of an External World reaches Berkeley's position independently. 1634, Politics. The Abb^ Saint Pierre explains a Projet pour la Paix Perp^tuelle. 1636, Philology. Bentley infers a lost digamma from considerations of metre. 1636. Law. Gravina's Origines Juris Civilis. 1637. Geography. A Boa^ of Longitude is created in England. 1638. Death. Shaftesbury. 1639, Eng. Oh. Bolingbroke introduces the Schism Act, aimed ^1714 at Dissenting Academies, forbidding nonconformists to teach; ■> but, owing to the death of the Queen almost immediately after, the Act is not enforced. 1640, Italian Lit. MafTei's Merope imitates classical tragedy. 1641, Spanish Lit. The foundation of the Spanish Academy marks the epoch of the prevalence of French taste. 164^. Philosophy. LeibnitK' La Monadologie explains the world and human life by monads working according to a harmony pre-established by God. 16j^. History. Helyot's Histoire des Ordres Monastiques. 1644- Law. Bohmer's Jus Ecclesiasticum Protestantium traces the modification of Canon Law by the Reformation, and developes Tho- masius' territorial theory, according to which the prince possesses the highest ecclesiastical authority as sovereign ruler of the State, not as the chief member of the Church, as the 'episcopal' system of Carpzov maintained. In 1719, Pfaff of Tubingen suggests the 'collegial' system, accord- ing to which the headship of the Church, jus circa sacra, belongs to the sovereign, while the matters pertaining to doctrine and worship belong to the whole body of Church members. 1646. Death. Magliabecchi. 1646, French Oh. Antoine Court becomes pastor at Nlmes and m oj^r leader of French Protestantism till his death, 1760. He restorer ^ the synodal system, which has been upset since the Revocation, and discourages the 'inspires' survivors of the Camisard wars. 206 POLITICS [1716 1013. Scotland. The Pretender orders Mar, his chief adherent in Scotland, to take the field. A drawn battle is fought at Sheriffmnir, but Mar allows Argyle to secure the advantages of a victory. On the same day Forster, a Northumberland gentleman who has declared for the Pretender and been joined by Lord Derwentwater and others^ sur- renders at Preston. 1014. Netherlands. The Barrier Treaty is arranged, the Emperor receiving the Spanish Netherlands and tne Dutch garrisoning several fortresses. 1015. France. On the King's death his will is set aside and Orleans is appointed Regent by the Paris Parliament. Maine remains guardian of the King; but the Duke of Bourbon is appointed president of the Council of Regency. Seven Councils are created. 1016. Gexmany. The Danes sell the duchies of Bremen and Verden to Hanover, which undertakes to enter the war against Sweden. 1017. Turkey. The Turks expel the Venetians from the Morea. 1018. En^and. The Pretender appears in Scotland, but quickly ryno returns to France. Despite the easy suppression of the rebeUion, ^ the Whigs pass a Septennial Act. The treaty of Hanover is made by Dubois, England promising to support Orleans in his claims to the throne, if the young King dies, the Regent in return promising to support the Hanoverian succession. The Dutch shortly join the alliance. Walpole establishes a Sinking Fund. 1019. Turkey. Moldavia and Wallaohia receive Phanariot governors. The Turks are defeated at Peterwardein by Eugene, and Temesvar, the last Turkish possession in Hungary, falls. 1020. En^and. Goertz, the Swedish minister at the Hague, n7i7 plots to aid the Pretender in an invasion of England ; but his i^'^' scheme is discovered through the Swedish ambassador in London. 1021. France. Orleans makes a Convention with Russia and Prussia to maintain the treaties of 1713, his succession being guaranteed. Law, a Scotch adventurer, persuades the Regent to transform his bank, established 1716, into a Government institution, and forms a Mississippi Company, to which the Regent grants Louisiana and the tobacco monopoly. The Company advances money to the Government and Its shares are eagerly bought. The opposition from the Parliament leads to the withdrawal of the right of protest. D'Aguesseau and KoaiUes are dismissed, the administrative Councils are suppressed and Law is appointed minister of finance. . rr » 1717] CULTURE 207 F^nelon's Traits de TExistence de Dieu. The Jansenists commence to publish the Nouvelles Eccl^iastiques, which appear r^alariy from 1729 and with brief intervals till 1803. 15Jpf, Itanan On. The Duke of Savoy, who has become King of Sicily without the sanction of the Pope, claims to exercise the 'spiritual right^ of the Sicilian monarchy.' Clement thereupon proclaims an Interdict. 16J^. Eng. Lit. Pope translates the Iliad. 16J^. French Ut Le Sage's Gil Bias, a tale of the times of Ein^ Philip III. and IV. of Spain, modelled on the Spanish picaresque nove&. 1560. Science. Taylor s Methodus Incrementorum invents the calculus of finite differences, and proves the theorem that the functions of a single variable can be expanded in powers of it. 1651, FhlloBophy. Leibnitz repeats his criticisms of the Principia, outlined in the Acta Eruditorum 1689 and in the Th^odic^, in a letter to the Princess of Wales, declaring that Newton's theories lead to a materialistic view of the universe, and repeating his own theory of pre-established harmony. Caroline gives the letter to Clarke, whose reply leads to a correspondence. Anthony Collins' Inquiry into Human Liberty reaches detenninist conclusions. 1562, Philology. Facciolati's Polyglot Lexicon. 155S, History. The Benedictines of St Maur commence the publication of the Oallia Christiana. 155J^ Deaths. Burnet, F^nelon, Malebranche. 1665. Bng. Oh. Dr Williams founds the Williams Library. ri716 Arsenius, Metropolitan of Thebais, visits London, and the ^ Non-jurors negotiate for reunion with the Greek Church. The Tsar £Etvour8 the proposals and refers them to the Patriarchs, who refuse all concessions^ 1721. After further correspondence, the Patriarchs send an ultimatum requiring acceptance of all the do^as of the Eastern Church. Wake denounces the Non-jurors to the Patnarch of Jerusalem. 1656. Science. De Moivre's Doctrine of the Chances. 1657. History. Le Neve's Fasti Ecclesiae Anglicanae. Heame begins to edit the English Chronicles. 1558. Deaths. Leibnitz, Somers. 1669. Eng. Oh. In answer to soma, papers of Hickea accusing vrrtyt the English Church of schism, Hoadley, Bishop of Bangor, ^ denies the necessity of communion with any churcn, and declares that sincerity is the only requirement of Christian profession. These views, repeated in a sermon On the Nature of Christ's Kingdom, in which Hoadley declares against tests of orthodoxy, are censured by Convo- cation, which is in consequence prorogued by the Government, and does not reassemble for business till 1852. Hoadley replies to the censure, and the Bangorian Controversy begins, in which Law and others take part. 1560. French Ch. Four Bishops appeal to a General Council and renounce the bull Unigenitua They are joined by the Sorbonne, 208 POLITICS [1717 1022. Spain. A Spanish army is sent to conquer Sardinia, professedly owing to the arrest of a Spanish subject in Italy. 1023. Turkey. Eugene annihilates the Turkish army at Belgrade and captures the town. 1024. Rusaia. An expedition against Ehiva, sent out by Peter under Bekovitch, completely fails. 1025. Spain. A Spanish army seizes Sicily. The Emperor nnig appeals to the Triple Alliance to aid him in upholding the ^ articles of Utrecht, and Dubois frames a treaty by which the Emperor, who joins the Triple Alliance, resigns all claims on Spain, rhilip renounces Austria's share, Savoy exchanges Sicily for Sardinia, and the succession to Parma and Tuscany is secured to the children of Philip's second marriage. These terms are declined by Spain, and the Spamsh fleet is destroyed by Admiral Byng oflF Cape Passaro. Alberoni here- upon invites the Pretender to Spain, and prepares an expedition for him, and concerts with Goertz, Charles' chief adviser, for the reconcilia- tion of Sweden and Kussia. He also plots with the Duchess of Maine and other malcontents in France to depose Orleans and give the regency to Philip. 1026. Sweden. Sweden and Russia agree to ally, Russia to aid Sweden to recover her German possessions, Sweden to cede part of Finland, Carelia, Esthonia, and Livonia, and both to expel George I. Charles XII., however, is killed at the siege of Friedricnshall, and the treaty is annulled. The nobles regain power, and the Diet revises the Constitu- tion, and elects the late King's sister, Ulrica, who gives the government to her husband, Frederick of Hesse-CasseL 1027. Turkey. By the peace of Passarowitz, Austria completes her possession of Hungary, gains Belgrade and a strip of Servia and Bosnia, the Banate of Temesvar and Little Wallachia ; Venice retains Corfu and her conquests in Albania and Dalmatia; the Sultan keeps the Morea and Aegina, but promises to throw over Rakoksy. 1028. America. Tlie French found New Orleans, and the Spaniards found Pensacola. 1029. En^and. Sunderland and Stanhope repeal the Occasional nvi g Conformity and Schism Acts. Fearing another wholesale crea- ^ tion of Peers by a Tory ministry, they introduce, but fail to carry, a Peerage Bill, forbidding the Eang to increase the existing number (178) of peerages by more than six, except for members of tne Royal Family. 1030. Scotland. Spaniards invade Scotland, and are joined by some Highlanders, but are defeated at GlenshieL 1031. Ireland. A Dechuratory Statute is passed that Ireland has been and is dependent on the crown, inseparably united, and King and Parliament may make binding laws. 1719] CULTQRE 209 Noailles and over twenty bishops. The Pope puts the Appellants to the ban, 1718. Massillon's Petit CarSme, a coarse of sermons preached before the King. 1661, Ohiiroh EUst. Wake, sometime chaplain to the British Embassy to Paris, seizes the opportunity of the appeal of the four Bishops to discuss reunion with Dupin, who proceeds to report on the Articles in his Commonitorium. The scheme fails owing to the disfavour of Dubois and the Jesuits and the death of Dupin, 1719. 1662, Art. Watteau's Embarkation for the Isle of Venus, his diploma picture (Louvre). 1665, Science. Gravesande begins to lecture at Leyden on Newton's discoveries. John Bemouilli perceives the universal applicability of the principle of virtual displacements to all cases of equilibrium. 1664, SociaL After the rebuilding of the City of London and of St Paul's, most masonic lodges die out. The four which remain in London unite and renounce material masonry. A constitution is drawn up, 1721, lodges are formed in Paris, Berlin, and elsewhere, and the movement is condemned by the Pope, 1736. 1666. Death. Mme Guyon. 1666, Eng. Ch. Jeremy Collier reprints the first Prayer-Book riwig of Edwaitl VL with additions from antiquity, and the so-called >- Usages, and leaves the Non-jurors. Both continue the succession of bishops. A further split occurs in reference to the question of lay baptism, 1733. The last regular bishop dies 1779, the last irregular, 1805. Toland's Nazarenus contrasts the positions of Jew, Gentile and Mahometan. Clarke's Reformed Prayer-Book, an Arian liturgy. 1667, French Oh. Montfau^on edits Chrysostom. 1668, Science. Halley discovers that certain of the fixed stars have 'proper motions.' 1669, Politics. The Abb^ Saint-Pierre's Discours sur la Polysvnodie recommends the Regent Orleans' svstem of Councils, and attacks the memory and greatness of Louis XIV. 1670, Geography. D'Anville becomes Geographer to the King, and begins to construct his charts. 1571. Deaths. Baluze, Penn. 1672. Eng. Ch. A meeting, chiefly of Presbyterians, takes place riyig at Salters Hall, to protest against the subscription of a belief in ^ the Trinity by Nonconformist ministers. Pierce omits ever3rthing relating to the Trinity, but without attacking it. Though Calamy, Watts and Neal discountenance the movement^ English Presbyterianism loses strength, and Unitarianism spreads. Waterland's Importance of the Doctrine of the Trinity replies to Clarke. Col. Gardiner believes himself to have a vision of Christ. 0. 14 210 POLITICS [1719 1032. Spain. Alberoni's schemes fail, Gorz is executed, Orleans detects and punishes his opponents. A French army under Berwick enters Spain, and the Emperor expels the Spaniards from Sicily. The allies compel Philip to dismiss Alberoni, and Spain sinks back into lethargy. 1033. Sweden. The Swedes make a treaty with Hanover, which retains Bremen and Verden, and pays one million thalers. 1034. Sn^and. A mania of speculation attacks the country, 1-1720 the shares in the South Sea Company being sold for £1,000, and *■ creditors of the National Debt accepting shares in lieu of payment A panic, however, sets in, and the shares fall to 135. 1035. France. Law's reckless issue of notes (3 000 million francs), based on the land, raises prices and drives specie out of circulation. Holders of paper hasten to realise, the bank is forced to suspend pay- ment, and Law is exiled. 1036. Spain. Philip accepts the tenns of the Quadruple Alliance, the Emperor obtains Sicily, and Sardinia passes to Savoy, the Duke of which assumes the title of King of Sardinia. 1037. Austria. Having no sons, the Emperor publishes the Pragmatic Sanction, which is accepted by the difi'erent parts of the Empire and proclaimed irrevocable law, 1724. 1038. Sweden. After the long war, Denmark restores all conquests, and Sweden recognises the annexation of Schleswig. Prussia obtains Stettin and the adjacent district, thus reaching the Baltic, and pays two million tlialers. 1039. En^and. Aislabie, Chancellor of the Exchequer, is sent n»21 to the Tower for his share in the frauds, Sunderland resig^ns, and ^ Stanhope dies in a fit caused by a &lse accusation. Amidst the crash, Walpole, who has re-entered the government 1720, forms a ministry, including Townshend, Carteret and Pulteney, restores public credit, and becomes the first real Prime Minister, retaining his hold on Parliament in part through corruption. 1040. France. Dubois obtains the Cardinalate, and wins the goodwill of Spain by betrothing Louis to the daughter of Philip. A defensive alliance between France, Spain and England is also arranged. The two former secretly agree to the first Pacte Famille. 1041. Russia. Peter issues an Ukase declaring the right of the sovereign to name his successor (repealed by Paul I.). 1721] CULTURE 211 157S, Irish Oh. A Toleration Act is passed by the Irish Parliament. 1674, Ohnroh Hist. J. S. Assemanni, the Maronite librarian of the Vatican, publishes his Bibliotheca OrientiJis, chiefly relating to the Nestorians and Monophysites. His work is aided and continued by his nephews. 1676. Eng. Lit. Defoe's Robinson Crusoe, suggested by the story of Alexander Selkirk. 1676. Danish Lit. Holberg's comic epic, Peder Paars. 1577. Art. The Abb^ Dubos' Reflexions critiques sur la Po^sie et la Peinture supply hints to Lessing. 1578. Fhilolo^. Montfau9on's Antiquity Expliqu^. 1579. History. Le Long's Biblioth^ue historique de la France, an account of books and manuscripts. 1580. Deaths. Addison, Flamsteed, Mme de Maintenon, Quesnel. 1581. Scotch Ch. Boston's Human Nature in its Fourfold Estate. 1582. French Oh. Dubois, who hopes for a Cardinal's hat, rytng^ persuades Parliament to acknowledge the Bull Unigenitus, with ^ express reservation of Gallican liberties, and begins to persecute the Appellants. 1585. German Oh. The Irenicum of Pfafi* of Tubingen is bitterly attacked by the strict Lutherans. 1584, Eng. Lit. The Cato Letters, by the Whig journalists Gordon and Trenchard, denounce the authors of the South Sea Bubble. 1586, Science. Fahrenheit employs mercury in a thermometer ; R^umur uses spirits of wine ; and Celsius divides the scale into 100 degrees. 1586. Philology. Bentley's Proposals for printing the New Testament advocate the study of the oldest uss., independently of the Textus Receptus. 1587. History. P^re Anselme discusses the value of ancient records, and Pouilly and Beaufort criticise the authenticity of the early history of Rome, which is defended by Fr^ret. 1688. Law. Vice's De Uno Uuiversi Juris Principio connects the philosophy of law with general philosophy, and applies the historical method. 1689. Eng. Oh. Waterland's Case of Arian Subscription Con- xyi^x sidered attacks Clarke's interpretation of the Articles. ^ 1590. German Oh. Brockes Earthly Pleasure in God, a metrical work of optimistic deism. 1591. Russian Oh. In place of the Patriarchate of Moscow, the Holy Synod is appointed to rule the Church under the Tsar, who chooses its members, and may veto its decisions. 1692. French Lit. Montesquieu's Lettres Persanes trenchantly criti- cise political and ecclesiastical methods and ideas. 14—2 212 POLITICS [1721 1042. Sweden. By the Treaty of Nystad, Sweden cedes to Russia Livonia and Esthonia and Ingermannland, Russia promising not to inter- fere with tibe internal affairs of Sweden and restoring rinland. The treaty confirms Russia's supremacy in the North. 1043. Denmark. Frederick founds a fort in Greenland and plants a colony. The Government reserves to itself the monopoly of trade. 1044. iuHca. France occupies Mauritius, deserted by Holland 1712, and calls it He de France. 1045. England. Atterbury, Bishop of Rochester, is arrested for n»22 corresponding with the Pretender, and is banished 1723. ^ 1046. JNe&erlands. Desiring to revive Flemish commerce, but not daring to re-open the Scheldt, the Emperor forms an East India Company at Ostend, which is hotly opposed by England. 1047. Russia. Alexis is executed for nis opposition to his father's policy. Russia seizes Derbeut and Baku on the Caspian. 1048. En^and. Bolingbroke is allowed to return, though he is 1-1723 not allowed to sit in the House of Lords. He begins to organise ^ an opposition to Walpole, but never regains much political influence. 1049. Jhrance. The King's minority ends, Dubois and Orleans die, and Bourbon, Condi's grandson, becomes chief minister. The real power, however, is exercis^ by the King's tutor, the Abbd Reury, who con- tinues Orleans' policy of friendliness to England. 1050. Htingdiy. By the Pragmatic Sanction, Hungary and Austria are declared inseparable under the same ruler, but Hungary is to remain independent and to be governed by her own laws. 1051. En^and. Carteret resigns his place in the ministry, dis- nnoA ajpproving of Walpole's alliance with France, and becomes Lord L-"^'^* Lieutenant of Ireland. Newcastle and his brother, Henry Pelham, enter the Cabinet 1052. Ireland. To supply the want of copper coin, a patent is given to the King's mistress, who sells it to Wood, 1 723. Though the coins are good, the Irish of both races strongly protest against the whole affair. Swift gives utterance to Irish sentiments in his Drapier's Letters, which denounce the job and plead for national self-government Walpole withdraws the grant and compensates Wood. 1724] CULTURE 213 Jo93. Amerioan Lit. Dmniner's Defence of the New England Charters. Jo94. Politics. Wolff's Politics derive Natural Right fix>m the moral nature, and vindicate inborn rights for man. 1695. History. Vico attacks the credibility of early Roman Histoir. 1596, Sociflbl. Inoculation for small-pox, introduced into Englana by Lady M. W. Montagu, wife of the Engnsh ambassador at Constantinople, is rendered fiashionable^ the Princess of Wales. 1597. Deaths. Huet, Watteau. 1598. Eng. Oh. WoUaston's Religion of Nature imitates Clarke ry^^Si and anticipates the Utilitarians. ^ 1599. Bohemian Oh. Zinzendorf collects the remnants of the Bohe- mian Brothers and forms the Moravian Brotherhood at Hermhut. 1600. Asiatic Oh. The Christian Churches in China are destroyed. 1601. Art. Au^tus founds a Picture Gallery at Dresden. Farinelli makes his d^but. Bach's Fugues. 160£. SociaL Workhouses are erected in England. 160S. Deaths. Marlborough, Toland. 1604. Dutch Oh. The Utrecht Chapter elects an Archbishop 1^723 who is consecrated by the Bishop of Babylon, and is defended ^ by Van Espen, but is excommunicated by the Pope. Suffragan bishops of Harlem and Deventer are consecrated 1742 and 1752. 1605. French Lit. Voltaire's Henriade. 1606. Italian Lit. Metastasio's Didone Abbandonata, an operatic libretto. 1607. Philosophy. Mandeville's Fable of the Bees, attacking the optimism of Shaftesbury (published 1705, expanded 1714, and 1723), is prosecuted by the Grand Jury of Middlesex, and is criticised by Law and Berkeley. The King of Prusda banishes Wolff from Halle. 1608. History. Giannone's Civil History of Naples defends the civil power in its conflicts with the hierarchy. Muratori collects the works of the historians of mediaeval Italy. 1609. Deaths. Leeuwenhoek, Wren. 1610. Eng. Ch. Anthony Collins' Grounds and Beasons of the ry^t^ Christian Religion maintains that the Old Testament prophecies ^ on which Christianity rests were never literally fulfilled, and that Christianity is simply 'Mystical Judaism/ Hutchinson's Moses' rrincipia attacks Newton as the enemy of inspiration. 214 POLITICS [1724 1053. Spain. Philip resigns the throne in a fit of*religious mania, and perhaps also to be free for the French succession, but, on the death of his son, resumes his place owing to pressure from his wife. 1054. France. Louis suddenly dismisses the Infanta and marries r^^^gS Marie Leszczynski, the daughter of Stanislas, sometime King of ^ Poland. 1055. Spain. Angered bv this insult, and spurred on by Bipperda, a Dutchman in the pay of Austria, Spain allies with the Emperor, who desires Spanish confirmation of the rragmatic Sanction, by the Treaty of Vienna (April). Parma and Tuscany are to pass to Don Carlos, the Emperor to aid in the restoration of Gibraltar and Minorca, Philip to open Spanish ports to the Ostend Company and transfer the commercial privileges, hitherto enjoyed by England and the Dutch, to Germans. lUpperaa also concludes a secret treaty by which the Emperor promises to aid Spain to forcibly recover Gibraltar, if necessary, and to support a Jacobite invasion of England Marriages of the Emperor's daugnters with Philip's sons are also discussed. Russia and several German states join. 1056. En^and. To counterbalance this confederacy, England allies with France and Prussia by the Treaty of Hanover (Sept.). The integrity of the contracting powers is guaranteed, the Prussian claims on Jtilich are recognised, and the Ostend Company is to be abolished. Sweden, Denmark, and Holland shortly join the alhance. Pultenejy resigns his place in the Ministry. 1057. Russia. Peter the Great dies. His wife Catherine succeeds him, and rules with the aid of MenshikofiT and Ostermann. 1058. England. Bolingbroke and Pulteney combine in opposi- rj^vofi tion to Walpole, and found a weekly journal, the Craftsman, in ^ which the Government is denounced as a despotism based on corruption. 1059. France. Fleury procures the dismissal of Bourbon, and becomes first minister, and restores credit and economy. 1060. Austria. Seckendorf detaches Frederick William, King of Prussia, who repents of his alliances of 1725, and whose policy is now for some time dictated firom Vienna through Grumkow. The fiiendli- ness of the Emperor to Spain, on the other hand, cools, Charles dis- liking the idea of a Spanish duchy in North Italy and a Spanish marriage. 1061. Spain. Ripperda falls, but his successor, Patiiio, continues his policy. An English fleet blockades Porto Bello. 1062. Russia. A Treaty with Austria is arranged for 30 years, for common action against tne Turks and for defence against other powers. 1726] CULTURE 215 1611, French Ch. Bourbon forbids Protestant worship. 1612. Polish Ch. The Protestants who have attacked the Jesuit College are massacred at the 'Blood-bath of Thorn/ 1615. German Lit. The Patriot of Hamburg, by Brockes and Hagedom, extends English influences. Gottsched becomes Professor at Leipsig and criticises the extravagances of Lohenstein and his school Gunther's Poems. 1614* History. Burnet's Histoir of his Own Time. 1616, Economics. Possoschkon recommends schemes of economic and social reform from a mercantilist standpoint, and supports the policy of the Tsar. 1616. Death. Harley. 1617. Eng. Lit. Allan Ramsay's Gentle Shepherd. ri725 1618. American Lit. Ames' Astronomical Diary and Almanac '■ introduces English literature, and is followed by Franklin's Poor Richard's Almanac, 1733. 1619. Philosophy. Hutcheson's Our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue de- fends Shaftesbuiy's Ethics against Mandeville, and maintains that we perceive Beauty by *an internal sense' and independently of any advantage to m derived. 1620. History. Vice's Scienza Nuova declares that there is a special science of human histoir and traces the cycles of pro^ss. 1621. Geography. Behring (a Dane) discovers Behnng Straits. 1622. Social. Guy's Hospital is founded. 1625. Eng. Ch. Butler's 15 Sermons assert that man possesses r,«oo rational benevolence as well as self-love, and that both are I- under the authority of conscience. 1624. Eng. Lit. Thomson's Seasons initiate a contest against the supremacy of town models. Swift's GuUiver's Travels. Theobald edits Shakespere. Voltaire comes to reside in England for three years and studies English drama, Locke's philosophy and Newton's discoveries. 1626. French Lit. Mme de Tencin opens her Salon, which is fre- quented largely by the guests of Mme de Lambert 1626. Science. Harrison invents a compensating balance for clocks. 1627. History. Mascou begins the first valuable History of Germany in the Middle Ages. 216 POLITICS [1727 1063. Ireland. The Catholics are deprived of the franchise. ri727 1064. Spain. Spain besieges Gibraltar (Feb.), France standing ^ aloof. The Emperor, losing his strongest ally by the death of Catherine of Russia, agrees with England and the Dutch to the Preliminaries of Paris, promising to suspend the Ostend Company, and resolving on a Congress. 1065. Russia. Menshikoff falls, and is exiled to Siberia. 1066. England. The publication of debates is declared a breach ri7«2a ofpnvilege. •• 1067. Spain. The Siege of Gibraltar is raised, and a convention with England is signed. The Emperor informs Spain that the marriages arranged in 1725 will not take place. A Congress meets at Soissous, without result. 1068. Germany. By the secret treaty of Berlin, between IVederick William and the Emperor, the former recognises the Pragmatic Sanc- tion and promises his support to Charles' son-in-law as a candidate for the Empire, and Charles transfers his rights on Berg and Bavenstein. 1069. Spain. Seeing he can obtain nothing from the Emperor, rinnfi and his claims on France being barred by the birth of an heir, ^ Philip deserts the Austrian alliance and allies with France and England by the Treaty of Seville, which is shortly joined by the Dutch. Don C^los is to succeed to Parma and Tuscany, which are to be occupied by troops, and the privileges to the Emperor's subjects granted oy the Treaty of Vienna to be revoked. No mention is made of Gibraltar and Minorca. 1070. Italy. The series of revolts in Corsica against Genoa begins, led by several able adventurers. For some years the island is given up to anarchy. 1071. America. The Charter being forfeited for misgovernment, the proprietors of Carolina sell their titles, and the colony becomes a royal government, and is divided into North and South. 1072. Asda. Nadir, a robber-chief, aids the deposed Shah of Persia, and defeats the Afghans. In 1732, he deposes the Shah on the ground of incompetence, and sets up his infant son. 1073. En^and. Townshend resigns, refusing to recognise Wal- ry^^ pole as Prime Minister, and leaves political life. *- 1074. France. The Kii^ holds a Lit de Justice to compel Parliament to re^ster the Bull Umgenitus, and, on its refusal, issues an Edict declaring that it cannot meddle with politics. 1075. Germany. Hotham is sent to Berlin to arrange the double marriage desired by the Queen of Prussia, but is dismissed with insult The Queen hereupon makes Frederick and Wilhelmina promise to hold to the English marriages ; but the King discovers what she has done, and Frederick is imprisoned at Kiistrin. 1730] CULTURE 217 J6£8, Eng. Ch. Woolston attacks the credibility of Miracles, 1-1707 and is answered by Sherlock's Trial of the Witnesses. ^ Lardner^s Credibility of Gospel Historjr. Walpole introduces the first annual bill of indemnity for neglect of the Test and Coiporation Acts. J629. Church mat. Orsi attacks the Jesuits for allowing mental reserration. Zaccaria defends the Order, and is attacked by Patuzsi and Concina. J630. Eng. Ut Gay's Beggar^s Opera. CSiambers' Qyclopaedia. J6S1. Science. Stephen Hales' Statical Essays explain the nutrition of plants, and measure the flow of blood. 1632. Agricnltare. Lawrence's Duty of a Steward reveals the plan of the large landowners to expropriate tne yeomen or small farmers. J6S3. Deaths. Francke, Newton. 1634. Eng. Ch. A Moravian Mission is planted in England. ' nvoA 1636. Death. Thomasius. L^^^ 1636. Eng. Ch. Law's Serious Call. r^72g Doddridge establishes a Presbyterian Academy at Market *- Harborough. Middleton's Letter from Rome introduces the historic method into the deistic controvers]^, maintaining that the Roman Church adopted many Pagan ceremonies. «fohn Wesley and his friends b^n to meet at Oxford. Arminianism is spread in Wales by Jenkin Jones, and many adopt Arianism and Unitananism. 1637. American Ch. Jonathan Edwards begins to preach. Berkeley visits Rhode Island, hoping to Christianise Bermuda and the Indians by a missionary coHege. 1638. Art. Bach's St Matthew's Passion. 1639. Science. Gray finds that some bodies can, and others cannot, conduct electricity. Bradley discovers the aberration of light 1640. Law. D'Aguesseau be^pns to issue ordinances for the reform of French law, and plans its codification. 1641. Deaths. Clarke, Congreve, Menshikoff, Steele. 1642. Eng. Ch. Tindal's Christianitv as old as the Creation Tyj^ declares that Christ merely confirmed the law revealed by the ^ light of Nature. The book is vigorously attacked by Law. 1643. Scotch Ch. Glas attacks the civil establishment of the Church, is deposed and forms the Glassite Sect, which is developed by his son- in-law Sandeman. 1644. French Ch. Antoine Court leaves France and founds a Hugue- not seminary at Lausanne. Adrienne Lecouvreur, the actress, is refrised Christian burial 218 POLITICS [1730 1076. Russia. With Peter XL, grandson of Peter the Great, the male line of the RomanofiFs ends. 1077. America. Walpole allows Carolina and Georgia to export their rice and the West Indies their sugar in English ships, and repeals the duties on the importation of timber from the colonies. 1078. Africa. The Portuguese finally lose Mombasa. 1079. France. The Parliament of Paris declares the ministers of ri 731 the Church accountable to itself, under the King, whereon Fleury >- exiles several of its members. 1080. Italy. On the death of the Duke of Parma, the Emperor, indig- nant at the Treaty^ of Seville, seizes on his territory. France and England refuse to aid Spain in expelling him. Walpole, however, acting independently of France, forms the second treaty of Vienna with the Emperor, which is ioined by Spain. England guarantees the Pragmatic Sanction, on condition Maria Theresa does not marry a Bourbon. Charles agrees to dissolve the Ostend Company, and allows Don Carlos to occupy Parma and Piacenza. 1081. Poland. Russia, Austria and Prussia propose, but do not agree, to oppose Stanislas and to settle the succession. 1082. America. English and Spaniards come into conflict in South America, the former feeding the one ship allowed to them by treaty from tenders kept beyond sight of land, the latter insisting on the right of search. 1083. Germany. The Pragmatic Sanction is accepted by the rinon German Princes, except the Elector Palatine, Saxony and *- Bavaria. 1084. America, To secure the western part of Carolina before it is claimed by France or Spain, Oglethorpe, Berkeley and others, as trustees for the crown for 21 years, found the colony of Georgia, chiefly as ' a refuge for persecutea Protestants and for criminals. Though the Charter forbids slavery, the colonists ' hire ' slaves from Carolina. 1085. En^andL To supnress smuggling and frtiuds, Walpole nvoo proposes that tobacco shall be imported free of duty into super- ^ vised warehouses and sold at licensed shops, the duty being paid by the purchaser. Goods destined for re-exportation equally pay no duty. Walpole also abolishes the sinking-fund of 1716, and assures the Com- mons that he will be able to reduce the Land-Tax to one shilling in the £. Pulteney and Bolingbroke, however, persuade the country that the minister is imposing a general excise and raising the price of tobacco, and force Walpole to withdraw the scheme. Chesterfield and other dis- loyal members of the Government are in consequence dismissed. 1086. Italy. Fleury allies with Spain and Sardinia by the League of Turin, by which Don Carlos is to renounce Parma and the succession to Tuscany to his younger brother, and to obtain Naples and Sicily. 1733] CULTURE 219 1645. Science. De Moivre's theorems create (with Lambert) that part of trigonometry which deals with imaginarjr quantities. 1646. fliilology. Vice (in the 2nd edition of the Scienza Nuova) declares the Homeric poems to be composed by different hands, and the Iliad to be the earlier. 1647. History. BoUin's Histoire Ancienne. 1648. Agrictiltare. Townshend begins the Norfolk or four-course system of husbandly, improves marling, and cultivates clover and turnips. Jethro TuU also experiments on his farm at Wallingford. 1649. French Ch. Miracles commence at the tomb of the [1731 Jansenist, Abbd Paris. At first approved by the Jansenist ^ leaders, they soon degenerate, and the government closes the cemetery. 1650. German Ch. 20,000 Protestants of the diocese of Salzburg are expelled by the Archbi^op, and take refuge in Prussia, Holland and America. Tersteegen's Spiritual Flower-Garden, a collection of pietist and mystical hymns. 1651. Eng. Lit. The Gentleman's Magazine is founded. 1652. French Lit. Marivaux' Marianne creates Marivaudage, or af- fectation posing as simplicity. 1653. Dutch Lit. Van Effen edite the Dutch Spectator. 1654. Science. Stahl's Observationes Ghemicae introduces the first consistent theory of the composition of compounds and of chemical action, and declares that there are four elements. Water, Air, Earth, Phlogiston. Hadley invents the quadrant for use at sea, which supersedes the astrolabe and the cross-staff. Dollond shortly invents the sextant 1655. Death. Defoe. 1656. Eng. Ch. Berkeley attacks the Deists in Alciphron. ^ [1732 1657. Church Hist. The Redemptionists are founded by Liguori, '- principally for missions to the rural poor. 1658. Eng. Lit. Pope's Essay on Man. 1659. French Lit. Voltaire's tragedy, Zaire. 1660. German Lit. The translation of Paradise Lost by Bodmer of Zurich is attacked by Gottsched, and leads to a controversy extending over 10 years between the Swiss and Saxon schools. Haller's The Alps praises the beauty of nature. 1661. Swedish Lit. Dalin s Argus copies the Spectator. 1662. Science. Boerhaave's Elements of Chemistry founds organic chemistry, analysing the compounds of plants and animals. 1663. History. Maffei's Verona lUustrata. 1664* Law. J. J. Moser's Foundations of International Law, the first systematic work on positive international law. 1665. Eng. Ch. Hoadley's Plain Account of the Lord's Supper, 1-1733 describing the ceremony as purely memorial, is attacked in Water- »• land's Doctrine of the Eucharistl 220 POLITICS [1733 The King of Sardinia is to annex the Milanese, and Savoy is to be handed over to France. France overruns Lorraine and the Milanese. 1087. Spain. A family compact is made by the Treaty of the Escnrial, bv which France and Spain agree that their forces shall act together, France promising the recoverv of Gibraltar, Spain the withdrawal of her concessions to English trade. Walpole hears of the secret treaty through the King of Sardinia. 1088. I^oland. Augustus dies, and the war party in France force the King and Fleury to promise support to Stanislas, who goes to Poland and is re-elected King by a majority of the nobles. Russia supports the son of Augustus, and the Emperor is won over by a promise of the young Augustus to recognise the Pragmatic Sanction. Stanislas is expelled by Russian and Saxon troops, French aid proves too small to be effective, and Augustus is acknowledged King by the Poles. 1089. America. By the Sugar Act, the colonies are forbidden to trade with the French islands and confined to the English West Indies. 1090. France. France and Sardinia conquer the Milanese and [uq^ occupy Lorraine. ^ 1091. Italy. Don Carlos enters Naples, where he is welcomed. Tanucci becomes hxs chief minister, and reforms are introduced. The clergy are taxed, and feudalism is partially broken up. 1092. Poland. Danzig is taken by Russia, and Stanislas is forced to escape from Poland. 1093. En^and. Bolingbroke retires to France. ni^K 1094. Italy. Don Carlos wins Sicily. ^^'^^ France deserts Spain and arranges preliminaries of peace with the Emperor. Stanislas is to renounce the Polish crown in favour of Augustus, and to receive in compensation Lorraine, which on his death is to pass to France. Francis of Lorraine is to receive Tuscany as indemnification on the death of the reigning Grand Duke. Don Carlos hands over Parma and Piacenza to the Emperor, and is recognised as King of Naples and Sicily. Other conquests are restored, and France guarantees tne Pragmatic Sanction. 1095. Afirica. Labourdonnais becomes Governor of Mauritius and Reunion under the French East India Company, and establishes the sugar industry in the islands. 1096. Asia. The war between Turkey and Nadir ends. 1097. Scotland. Porteous, captain of the Edinburgh City Guard, r,«gg fires on the mob at the execution of Wilson, a smuggler, is ^ sentenced to death, and reprieved. He is hung by the mob, and the riots in Edinburgh reveal the latent hostility felt by Scotland to the English crown. 1098. Spain. The Preliminaries of Vienna are accepted by Spain. 1736] CULTURE 221 1666, Scotch Ch. The restoration of lay-patronage is attacked by Ebenezer Erskine, who is suspended. He protests against the authority of the General Assembly, forms a new church, and is deposed. 1667, Polish Ch. Non-Catholics are excluded from office. 1668, French Lit Cresset's Vert- Vert, the story of a parrot. 1669, Art. Rameau begins to compose operas and becomes recognised as Lulli's successor. 1670, History. Vaissette and Devic, Benedictines of St Maur, compile a Histoire de Languedoc. Others commence a Histoire litt6raire de la France. 1671, Law. Proceedings in Court are to be in English. 1672. German Ch. Baumgarten becomes Professor of Theology ri 734 at Halle and developes a Pelagian rationalism. About this time '- Pietism loses its influence in tne Lutheran Church. 167S. French Ut. Voltaire's Lettres sur les Anglais introduce the ideas of Locke and Newton, and direct attention to England. 1674, Art. The Dilettanti Society is formed to encourage art 1675, Philosophy. Berkeley's Aiialyst declares that mathematics can- not justify its axioms any more than theology. 1676, Education. Mme de Lambert's Avis d'une M^re k sa Fille approves of the study of classics and Cartesianism by women. 1677, History. Montesquieu's Grandeur et Decadence des Remains. 1678, Death. Stahl. 1679, Eng. Ch. Scougal's Life of God in the Soul of Man. [vi^r 1680, American Ch. John Wesley goes to work in Georgia. ^ 1681, Science. Linnaeus' Systema Naturae introduces a second or specific name for plants and animals, and proves the sex of plants, which he classifies according as the organs of reproduction are visible or not. La Condamine is sent to South America and Maupertuis to Lap- land to measure an arc of the meridian. 1682, Economics. Berkeley's Querist points out the true nature of money. 1683, Law. Heineccius declares Broman law inapplicable in Germany. 1684^ Death. Peterborough. 1685, Eng. Ch. Butler's Analogy of Religion, Natural and i^^^^ * Bevealed, with the Constitution and Course of Nature contends ■- that the difficulties of Christianity are no greater than those of natural religion, which his opponents, the Deiste, recognise to proceed from God. Warburton's Alliance of Church and State contends for the necessity, both theoretical and practical, of an Establishment and a test law. Walpole supports the Quakers in their protest against tithes, but is forced by the outcry to withdraw. 1686, German Ch. Wolff's Theologia Naturalis, distinguishing Veritas Aetema and Veritates Contingentes, such as miracles, initiates the Aufklarung. 222 POLITICS [1736 1099. Italy. Baron Neuhof, of Westphalia, becomes King Tlieodore I. of Corsica. 1100. Turkey. The Czarina Anne, desiring to recover Azov, declares war against Turkey, and seizes Azov. Kussia's ally, Austria, sends an army under Seckendorf, a Protestant. 1101. Asia. The infant Shah dies, the Sufi dynasty ends, and Nadir becomes Shah of Persia. 1102. En^and. The King quarrels with the Prince of Wales, r^^3^ who retires to Leicester House and becomes the head of the ^ opposition. Walpole's position is further weakened by the death of Queen Caroline. The Treaty of Vienna is ratified, and the war of the Polish Suc- cession is closed. 1103. Italy. The Grand Duke of Tuscany dies, and is succeeded by the Duke of Lorraine. 1104. France. Stanislas succeeds to Lorraine and Bar. The Corv^^e is established throughout France. 1105. Turkey. The Emperor's troops are repulsed, and Seckendorf is disgraced. 1106. Russia. Courland, which is legally under the overlordship of Poland, is obtained by the Empress Anne for Biron. 1107. En^and. The opposition is joined by Pitt and other ri^oo young men indignant at the corruption of Walpole, who calls •■ them the Boys. Ca{)tain Jenkins, who claims to have lost an ear in a scufiie with a Spanish coast-guard, is brought forward by the opposition, and a cry for war with Spain becomes general. 1108. Austria. The Treaty of Vienna is definitively signed. 1109. Sweden, The Hats, or the war-party, overthrow the Caps, the party of peace. Gyllenborg becomes chancellor, and the French alliance IS renewed. 1110. Turkey. The new Austrian General, Konigsegg, is driven back to Belmude, and several fortresses are lost. Fleury others mediation. 1111. Asia. Nadir Shah seizes the cities and territories of Kandahar and Cabul, the latter an outpost of the Moghul Empire. 1112. En^and. Walpole obtains an indemnity from Spain for rinog actual damage to Englishmen in South America; but Spain ^ threatens to cancel the monopoly. Walpole is forced to enter on war for the right of search. Porto Bello is captured by Vernon, and Anson attacks Peru in the course of his voyage round the world. 1113. Prance. By a secret treaty with Austria, the House of Sulzbach is guaranteed wo visional occupation of Jiilich and Berg on the death of the Elector Palatine (Jan.). Three months later, France secretly 1739] CULTURE 223 i^^7. Science. Euler founds analytical mechanics, retaining the old geometrical modes. 1688. Art. The exploration of Hercalaneum, discovered 1711, is com- menced. 1689. Law. Bjmkershoek's De Foro Legatorum. 1690. Social. The English statutes against witchcraft are repealed, despite the protest of the Presbyterian ministers. 1691. Deathi Eugene, Leclerc. f>eigole8i- 1692. Eng. Ch. Gruden compiles a Concordance of the Bible. ri7 and by Philip of Spain, as heir of the Spanish Hapsburgs. Russia, on the other hand, is neutral, and England and Holland friendly. 1117. Russia. Anne, daughter of Peter the Great, dies, and Munnich, one of her German generals, sets aside her will, and deserts Austria for Prussia. 1118. Germany. Frederick the Great succeeds his father (May), and takes advantage of the contested succession to the Empire to seize Silesia (Dec.), basing his claim on the purchase of Jagemdorf, 1524, and the treaty of 1537 with the Duke of Liegnitz. 1119. Asia. On his return from India, Nadir Shah receives the sub- mission of the Uzbek ruler of Balkh and Bokhara, and extends his dominions to the Oxus. The capitulations granted to France by the Porte are collected and confirmed, and the Protectorate over the Syrian Pilgrims is explicitly stated. 1120. Germany. Frederick meets the Austrians at Mollwitz, riv^i where his cavalry is routed and he himself flies, the day, how- *- ever, being retrieved by the infantry under Schwerin (April). Louis and Fleury are persuaded by Belleisle to attempt the partition of Austria, and agree by the secret Treaty of Nymphenburg to sup^rt the claims of the Elector of Bavaria to the Empire (May). Frederick, who fails to obtain the cession of Silesia firom Maria Theresa, allies with France, promising to support Bavaria, Louis guaranteeing Lower Silesia. Saxony also joins France, on the promise of Upper Silesia and Moravia (July). George II. declares Hanover neutral, and promises his electoral vote to Bavaria. Belleisle crosses the Rhine, joins the Bavarian troops, and takes Linz, three days' march from Vienna (Sept.). 1741] CULTURE 225 1707, German Lit. The Oottinger Gelehrte Anzeigen are commenced by Haller. 1708, Russian Lit. Lomonosof writes an ode on the taking of Ehotin from the Turks. 1709, Literature. The President de Brosses Tisits Italy and describes its art and society, in letters to his friends in France. 1710, Philosophy. Hume's Treatise on Human Nature declares that only the particular exists ; that the elements of all knowledge are simple perceptions, received passively; that the echo or survival of these forms impressions or ideas, association taking place according to likeness, contiguity and causal connection ; that tne ideas of a self or ego and of a cause are illusions ; that the process of willing and acting is mechanical, being based chiefly on the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain. 1711, History. Bloraefield's History of Norfolk. 1712, Eng. Ch. Wesley severs his connection with the Mora- ri74A vians. *■ Challoner's Garden of the Soul, a Catholic manual. 171S, Italian Ch. Benedict XIV. becomes Pope and gathers round him Noris, Orsi, Saccarelli, and other scholars. 17H. Asiatic Ch. Wahab commences a Puritan movement in Persia, which rapidly spreads. 1715, Church Hist. Muratori discovers and publishes a fragmentary Latin Canon of the Christian Scriptures, dating from the second century. 1716, Eng. Lit. Bichardson's Pamela commences the novel of sentiment. 1717, German Lit. Frederick the Great patronises Gottsched and Gellert; but the influence of the Gallic sdiool begins to decline. 1718, Art. The French Salon begins to be held. 1719, Science. Lazzaro Moro explains the order of strata by the action of the sea, rivers, earthquakes, and volcanoes. 1720, Law. Wolfi^s Jus Naturae first completely separates the Law of Nations from the duties of individuals, basing the former on a pre- sumed consent. 1721, Politics. Frederick the Great's Anti-Machiavel portrays the king as the 'premier domestique' of his people. 1722, Geography. Anson sails round the world in the Centurion. 172S, Eng. Ch. Wesley employs lay preachers and builds (-1741 chapels for them. ^ Whitfield returns from America, and engages in a controversy on predestination with Wesley. 172i, American Ch. The Moravians found Bethlehem and other colonies in Pennsylvania. 1725, French Ch. With the death of Montfau5on, the Benedictines of St Maur decline, their place in the van of scholarship being to some extent taken by the Academic des Inscriptions. G. 15 226 pouTics [1741 In face of this formidable alliance, Maria Theresa concedes to Hungary the right of arming and constitutional priyileges ; whereon the country rises in her SEtvour and recognises her husband as joint ruler. She also concludes a secret treaty with Frederick at Klein Schellendorf, promising the cession of Lower Silesia (Oct). At this moment, however, Prague is taken by the allies; a nalace revolution substitutes Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, who is inclined to a French alliance, for the fiegent Anne ; and Frederick breaks the con- vention, and sends Schwerin to invade Moravia. 112 L. Austria. The Bohemian Aulic Chancery in Vienna, the last representative of Bohemian interests, is suppressed. 1122. West Indies. Vernon fails to take Carthagena and Santiago. 1123. America. A Bussian expedition under Behring opens up a fiir trade in Alaska. 1124. En^and. Walpole is defeated, and resigns, and Carteret rywAo and Newcastle take office. ^ 1125. Germany. The Elector of Bavaria is chosen Emperor (Feb.), but Bavaria is overrun, the Austrian provinces are recovered, and Frederick's campaign in Moravia fails. He again negotiates, with English media- tion ; but Maria Theresa insists on his joining her to expel the French. He defeats her at Chotusitz (May), but accepts her request for peace. Bv the Treaty of Breslau he obtains almost all Silesia and the county of Olatz, takes over the debt on Silesia, and makes a defensive alliance with England. Saxony also deserts France by the Treatv of Dresden, but fails to obtain territory. France again wins Bavaria, but is driven out of Bohemia. 1126. Italy. Maria Theresa allies with Sardinia to keep a Spanish army out of Lombardy. Modena is captured, and an English fleets ancnored before Naples, compels Don (jarlos to withdraw from the war. Sardinia and England, nowever, refuse to aid Maria Theresa in attempting to win back ifaples and Sicily. ] 127. Ireland. (}harles Lucas demands Home Rule. ri743 1128. Germany. Austria retakes Bavaria, which is ceded bv l- a convention till a general treaty. The French give up £^er, their last Bohemian stronghold. A mixed English and Hanoverian army that has entered the Nether- lands is joined oy Dutch troops, sent by the reviving Orange party. Oeorge H. arrives and defeats Noailles at Dettingen (June\ The victor}^ is not followed up, Carteret and Newcastle quarrel, ana a pro- posed invasion of France fails. 1129. Italy. Savoy refuses to fi^ht further without territorial con- cessions ; but by English mediation, the Treaty of Worms is made, between England, Savoy and Austria (Sept.). Maria Theresa cedes 1743] CULTURE 227 1726, German Ch. Ernest Augustus of Saze- Weimar founds a mission to the Jews. The Society of Alethophils is founded to spread the philosophy of Wolff, esi^ecially among the younger clergy. A large number accept the principles of the Aufkla^nc. 1727, Italian Ch. Benedict XIV., by a Concordat with Naples, allows the laity partial jurisdiction over the clergy. 1728, Cnnrch Hist. Benedict XIV. issues a Dedaration to the bishops of Holland, allowing mixed marriages where the Protestant swears not to molest the Catholic in the exercise of reli^on, and promises to educate the children as Catholics. A similar bnef is sent to Poland, 1748, and is extended to the whole Church, 1777. The Pope forbids missionaries to take part in the slave trade. 1729, Eng. Lit. Garrick achieves his first great success in the part of Richard III. 1730, Science. Linnaeus plans a botanical garden at Upsala. 1781. Politics. Hume's Essays expose the notion of a historical contract, and adopt the principle oi Utility. 1732. Fldlosophy. Brucker's Historia Fhilosophiae, the first systematic attempt at a history of thought. 1738. Social. The Highway Act imposes tolls, and English roads are greatly improved. 1784* Eng. Ch. Dodwell's Christianity not founded on Argu- riv^n ment attacks both Deists and Christians for asserting the harmony ^ of reason and revelation, and declares Rational raith a contradiction in terms. Edward Young's Night Thoughts on Life, Death and Immortality obtain immense success. 1786. German Ch. Frederick the Great grants equal rights to Catho- lics and Protestants in Prussia. Bengel's Gnomon of the New Testament, a Lutheran Commentary, becomes classical. At the Imperial election, gravamina against the Curia are discussed. 1736. American Ch. Muhlenberg, a pietist from Halle, becomes the leader of the Lutherans in Pennsylvania. 1737. Eng. Lit. Fielding's realistic novel, Joseph Andrews, commenced as a parody on Richardson's Pamela. 1788. German Lit. Elias Schlegel's work on Imitation discusses Aesthetics from the classical standpoint afterwards adopted by Lessing. 1739. Science. Maclaurin presents the first systematic account of ' Fluxions (which he regards as velocities), su^gestea by Berkeley's attack on the principles of the calculus in the Analyst. 17jiO. Art. Handel's Messiah. 1741. Deaths. Bentley, Massillon, Walpole. 1742. Eng.Ch. The Welsh Calvinistic Methodist body is founded r^^^g by Whitfield and Howell Harris, once a churchman, who has '- been preaching in Wales for some years as a layman. 15—2 228 POLITICS [1743 part of the Milanese to Savoy, and directs her troops to serve under the King of Sardinia. England promises subsidies ; and secret articles pro- vide for the expulsion of the Jiourbons from Italy. 1130. France. Fleury dies, and the Belleisle party becomes supreme. To meet the Treaty of Worms, France and Spain make a new Facte Famille at Fontainebleau, France promising to^ declare war against England and Sardinia, and to aid Spain to seize the Milanese and Parma, Gibraltar, Minorca and Georgia (Oct.). 1131. Sweden. After capitulating in the campaign of 1742, Sweden cedes South Finland to Russia by uie Treaty of Abo, and the succession is guaranteed to the House of Holstein-Oottorp. 1132. En^and. Carteret is ejected by Newcastle, owinff to his nuAA unpopular foreign policy. Henry Pelham, Newcastle's brother, ^ becomes supreme. 1133. France. An expedition to restore the Young Pretender is defeated by a storm. War is declared i^inst England and Austria. Saxe captures several fortresses in the Netherlands. Charles of Lorraine crosses the Ehine with an Austrian army and overruns Alsace. 1134. Germany. Meanwhile Frederick forms the Union of Frankfort (May), joined by Charles of Bavaria, the Elector Palatine and the Land- grave of Hesse, to force Maria Theresa to restore Bavaria and make a general peace. As Maria Theresa hopes to recapture Silesia, Frederick renews his alliance with France, promising to conquer Bohemia for Charles of Bavaria, in return for the cession of part to him. He com- mences the second Silesian War by taking Prague. Charles of Lorraine is recalled from Alsace, and Saxony sends troops to aid Austria. Frederick falls back to Silesia. Bavaria, however, is meanwhile recap- tured. East Friesland passes by reversion to Prussia. 1135. Russia. Elizabeth's nephew and heir marries Catherine of Anhalt 1136. America. The French take Annapolis. 1 137. Scotland. The Young Pretender lands in Scotland (July), q»^ and marches to Edinburgh. Cope is defeated at Preston Pans *- (Sept.), and Charles crosses the Border and reaches Derby (Dec. 5), but turns Dack in fear. 1138. France. Mme de Pompadour becomes supreme. 1139. Germany. The Emperor dies (Jan.), and the Austrians again overrun Bavaria and force the young Elector to renounce his claim and to promise to vote for Francis. France urges Augustus of Saxony to 1746] CULTURE 229 17 J^, Churoh Hist. Swedenboi^ becomes convinced of his mission by revelations, retires from his post in a mining college, and composes his Arcana Gelestia. His claims are little recognised in Sweden, but are introduced into Qermany by Oetinger. No Swedenborgian Church is founded in England till towards the close of the century. 17^JI^, Literature. Voltaire visits Frederick the Great, with whom he has been in correspondence for several years. 17J!i5, Science. Haller b^ns to publish his anatomical drawings, and discovers the contraction of muscles. Clairaut's Th^rie de la Figure de la Terre measures the length of a meridian degree. D'Alembert's Djmamique, developing the work of James and John Bemouilli and Taylor, states that forces equal to the product of the masses and their acceleration, but acting in a contrary direction, are in equilibrium with the impressed forces. 17Jfi, Edacation. The Margrave of Bayreuth founds a University at Erlangen. 17Jfl. Death. Bynkershoek. 17Jf8, Eng. Cb. He first Methodist Conference is held at the nv^ Foundry Chapel, London, consisting of John and Charles ^ Wesley, four clergy and four lay preachers. An outline of dogmatic teaching is drawn up, the Bishops are to be obeyed 'in all things indifferent,' the canons to be observed 'as far as can be done with a safe conscience/ and 'societies are to be formed wherever the preachers go.' Annet replies to Sherlock's Trial of the Witnesses, and denies the resurrection of Christ 17 J^. Church Hist. Amort's Demonstratio Catholica, an Irenicon to Protestants, attempts to prove the rationality of Boman practices. 1750. Eng. Lit. Akenside's Pleasures of Imagination. 1751. Science. Trembley investigates fresh-water Polyps. 175^. Philosophy. Berkeley's Siris commends the healing virtues of tar-water and passes on to reafiirm the unsubstantiality of material things, and to declare spirit their foundation. 175S. History. Muraton's Annals of Italy. H^nault, President of the Parliament of Paris, compiles an Abr^d de I'Histoire de France. 1754. Deaths. Pope, Vico. 1755, Eng. Ch. Many of the Non-jurors are implicated in the m^^^ Jacobite rebellion. *■ Hervey's Meditations and Contemplations popularise Wesley's theo- logy, and obtain unrivalled popularity. 1756, French Ch. The persecution of Protestants recommences, and many ministers lose their lives. 1757, Italian Ch. fiiauchi's Ecclesiastical Power, written from an extreme Ultramontane standpoint, becomes a text-book. 230 POLITICS [1746 stand as Emperor ; but Maria Theresa bribes him to renew the Austrian alliance and to promise to regain Silesia. Saxe defeats the Duke of Cumberland at Fontenoy (May). Charles of Lorraine invades Silesia and is routed by Frederick at Hohenfriedberg (June). George II. deserts Austria, and makes the Convention of Hanover with Frederick, promis- ing to negotiate a peace with Austria (Aug.). Traun drives the French over the Rhine, and Francis is chosen Emperor at Frankfort (Sept.). Frederick repulses the Austrians at Soor, but sends his trooi)s into winter quarters. Austria and Saxony determine to invade Silesia and Brandenburg ; but Frederick hastily collects troops and, with the aid of Leopold of Dessau, defeats the Saxons at Kesselsdorf and enters Dresden (Dec). By the Treaty of Dresden, Maria Theresa confirms and Augustus guarantees the cession of Silesia, and Frederick recognises the Emperor. 1140. Italy. Aided by France and Genoa, the Spaniards take Parma, Piacenza, and Milan (except the citadel). Charles Emmanuel of Sar- dinia feels hurt at the want of support, but rejects D'Argenson's plan of expelling the Hapsburgs from Italy. 1141. America. Colonial troops take Louisburg, on Cape Breton Island. 1142. England. Owing to the refusal of the King to employ n^^g Pitt, the Ministry resigns. Carteret fails to form a Ministry, •- and the Pelhams return to power with Pitt and Fox. 1143. Scotland. The Pretender defeats Hawley at Falkirk (Jan.), but is defeated b}r Cumberland at CuUoden (April). He evades capture by the devotion of Flora Macdonald and others, and escapes to France. The Highlanders are disarmed, and the hereditary jurisdiction of the chiefs is abolished. ^ 1144. Italy. The Austrians and Sardinians expel the French and Spaniards from the greater part of Lombardy and riedmont, and defeat them at Piacenza (June). The death of Philip causes the withdrawal of nearly all the Spanish troops. Genoa is therefore forced to surrender, and Sardinia takes Finale and Savona. 1145. Netherlands. Saxe takes Brussels and Antwerp, and defeats Charles of Lorraine and the Duke of Cumberland. 1146. Austria. Maria Theresa makes a defeasive alliance with the Empress Elizabeth, secret articles providing for the restoration of Silesia. 1147. Asia. Labourdonnais takes Madras, but is hampered by Dupleix, Governor of Pondicherry. The English stir up the Nawab of the Camatic to attack Madras; but Dupleix sends a small force, which routs a large Hindoo army at the battle of San Thom^. 1746] CULTURE 231 1768. French Lit. Cr^billon's (Fils) Le Sopha. 1769. Art. Hogarth's Manage ^ la Mode. Sans Souci is built for Frederick the Great. 1760, Science. The Leyden jar, which accumulates and preserves a store of electricity, is invented by Musschenbroek and Cunaeus. The discovery is made independently by Eleist^ a Pomeranian clergyman. Bonnet's Traits d'Insectologie minutely studies moss-grubs and records experiments on polype and worms. 1761, Philosophy. Lamettne s Histoire naturelle de TAme, followed by L'Homme Machine, leads to his expulsion from France. He takes refuge in Berlin, where he is joined by Cabanis and Destutt de Tracy. His work may be regarded as the first systematic presentation of the materialism which dominates French thinking till the appearance of Royer-CoUard. 1762, Education. Van Swieten, a Dutch physician, settles in Vienna, and for 30 years directs education in the dominions of Maria Theresa. 1763, Agriculture. Bakewell, a Leicestershire farmer, begins to reform stock-breeding, and gradually doubles the weight of sheep. 1764, Death. Swift. 1766. Eng. Ch. Jones' Free and Candid Disquisitions on the vyj^ Church of England, urging the abolition of subscription, are >- presented in manuscript to a Bishop to lay before Convocation. They are published 1749, and are defended by Clayton, Bishop of Clogher, and Blackburne, who becomes leader of the movement. 1766. Scotch Ch. In consequence of the rebellion, the Scotch episcopal clergy are bitterly persecuted for Jacobitism. Meetings of more than five besides the family are forbidden, and clergy are forbidden to act as private chaplains. Some resign their orders, others flee to America. The stringency of the persecution is not relaxed till the accession of George III. 1767. Eng. Lit. CoUins' Odes. 1768. French Lit. Vauvenargues' Maidmes et Pens^es. 1769. German Lit. Gellert's Fables. 1770. Science. Guettard shows the distribution of rocks and minerals in France, points out the analogy of the disposition of mineral substances with those of England, and, later, discovers the volcanoes of Auvergne and lays the foundation of the theory of 'Vulcanism/ Euler and Daniel Bemouilli discover the law of the Conservation of Areas. 1771. Philosophy. Condillac's Origine des Connaissances humaines follows Locke in deriving knowledge from sensation and reflection. His Traits des Sensations, 1754, derives the faculties themselves firom sensation. Diderot's Pens^es Philosophiques criticise Pascal. 1772. Law. Cocceji undertakes a revision of Prussian law at the request of Frederick. The Corpus Juris Fredericiani, however, is not adopted. 1778, Death. Hutcheson. 232 POLITICS [1747 1148. En^and. Lords Lovat and Derwentwater are executed [1747 for their share in the rebellion. ^ 1149. France. Negotiations for peace that have been opened at Breda during the winter are broken off, owing to the determination of Maria Theresa to continue the war. 1150. Holland. The French invade Holland. The Orange Party revives, and William, mnd-nephew of William III., is made hereditary Stadtholder. Saxe defeats Cumberland at Lauffeld (July), and Beigen- op-Zoom is stormed (Sept.). 1151. Italy. Austria besieges Genoa, which receives aid from France, . but is forced to raise the siege, as Sardinia refuses assistance. Negotiations are recommenced : but Maria Theresa refuses to create a principality for Don Philip in Italy, having already given part of Lombaxdy to Sardinia. 1 152. Asia. On the death of Nadir, his Cavalry-General, Ahmed Shah Durani, seizes the throne, and founds modem Afghanistan, extending from Herat to Peshawar, and from Cashmere to Scinde. 1158. France. Marshal Saxe lays siege to Maastricht, and a 1-1740 Russian army enters Germany. Before, however, any fighting *■ occuis, England, France and Holland, failing to persuade Maria Theresa to tenninate the war, sign preliminaries of peace at Aix-la^Chapelle (April), and force Europe to sign a peace (Oct.). The war of the Austrian Succession ends, and Maria Theresa is recognised. France evacuates the frontier fortresses, which are restored to the Dutch, and undertakes to exclude the Pretender. The war leaves her without acquisitions and without prestige. 1154. Germany. The title of Prussia to Silesia is recognised. Francis is acknowledged Emperor. 1155. Italy. Don Philip receives Parma and Piacenza ; the King of Sardinia recovers Savoy, Nice, and the portions of Lombardy ceded by the Treaty of Worms. 1156. America. England surrenders Cape Breton. The Ohio Company is chartered by the English crown, and annoys the French settlers. 1157. Asia. An English fleet fails to take Pondicherry, which is defended by Dupleix. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle transfers Madras to England. Ahmed Snah invades the Punjab. [1749 1158. France. Machault, a friend of the Opposition, attempts to tax the clergy at one-twentieth of their revenues, but is forced to withdraw. 1159. Spain. Ferdinand retires from the Family Compact, and devotes himself, in company with Ensenada, to domestic reform. A navy is created, the fiscal system is reformed, mining is developed, and the Inquisition deprived of its power. 1749] CULTURE 233 1774. Eng. Lit. Johnson and Lauder conspire to prove Milton n^^y a plagiarist. *> 1776, French Lit. Nivelle de la Ghansste's La Gtouvemante, a type of the Gom^e Lannoyante. 1776. Italian Lit. The Magliabecchian Library in Florence is opened. 1777. Bnaaian Lit. Sumarokov's Hovev founds Russian dn^a on French models. 1778. Science. Bradley finds the nutation of the Earth's axis, in a cycle of 18 years, to be due to the Moon. His results are verified by Simpson and others. Maupertuis enunciates the principle of least action. 1779. History. Florez^ Christian Spain. 1780. JjAyt. Burlamaqui's Principes du Droit Naturel, written from the standpoint of rational utilitarianism. 1781. Deaths. Lesage, Vauvenargues. 178^, Bng. Oh. Middleton's Free Inquiry concerning the Mira- r]^74g culous Powers of the Christian Church introduces we historic ^ method. Hume's Essay on Miracles introduces the test of probability. John and Charles Weslev's Hymns. 1785. Italian Ch. Liguori s Moral Theoloflnr refounds equiprobabilism. 1784. S^ag- U^ Richardson's Clarissa Hanowe. Smollett's Roderick Random. 1786. German Lit. Elopstock's Messias. 1786. Italian Lit. Ooldoni be^ns his comedies. 1787. Science. De Maillet insists on the explanation of the earth by the forces now in operation, and suggests the transformation of species. Euler's Analysis Infinitorum, an introduction to pure analytical mathematics. 1788. Politics. Montesquieu's Esprit des Lois discusses the connection of laws with the natural and historical characteristics of a people, and declares, as against Hobbes, that justice precedes the rise of states, positive laws merely supplementing natural laws. Forms of Govern- ment vary with the character of the country' and people, England possessing the best, owing to the separation of ^wers. 1789. Archaeology. The excavation of Pompeii is begun. 1790. Ek>ciaL Paul invents a wool-carding machine. 1791. Deaths. Oiannone, Halley. 1792. Eng. Ch. Tlie Calvinists under Whitfield desert Wesley, r^^^ Whitfield becomes chaplain to Lady Huntingdon. I- 1793. Eng. Lit. FielcUnff's Tom Jones. Johnson's Vanity of Human Wishes. 1794. French Lit. On the death of Mme Tencin, Mme Oeoffrin's salon becomes pre-eminent, and is frequented by D'Alembert, Diderot, Marmontel, Morellet, and others, who also meet at the houses of 234 POLITICS [1749 1160. Austria. On his return from Aix-la-Chapelle, Eaunitz receives a seat in the Cabinet and becomes chief adviser. The Empress requests all her councillors for their ideas on the situation. Kaunitz urges the recovery of Silesia, points out the uselessness of the English alliance and the insufficiency of Russia and Saxony as allies, and recommends an alliance with France. Despite the opposition of the Emperor and the other councillors, his policy is approved by the Empress. Maria Theresa separates tne judiciary from the legislative and executive functions. 1161. En^and. England joins the Austro-Russian alliance (of (-1750 1746), though refusing to recognise the articles directed against ^ Prussia. Saxony signs unconditionally. England remonstrates against the efforts of Maria Theresa to restore the commerce of the Nether- lands. The Asiento is abolished, Spain paying England an indemnity. 1162. Anstria. E^aunitz is sent as envoy to Versailles to carry out his scheme of a French alliance against Prussia. He wins over Mme de Pompadour, but fails to convert the Eing^ who is at this time under the influence of the Prince de Conti. 1163. Portugal. Joseph I. succeeds his father, John V., and leaves the government to Pombal, who becomes supreme. 1164. America. Spain and Portugal agree to exchange their colonies of Paraguav and San Sacramento. The Jesuits disapprove the transfer, persuade the Indians of Paraguay to resist, and stir up a war of six years. Disputes take place between England and France in relation to the boundary between Canada and Nova Scotia. 1165. Asia. France and England support different candidates for the throne of Arcot. The French candidate is victorious, and appoints Dupleix Governor of the Carnatic. 1166. En^and. Frederick, Prince of Wales, dies. r^»R^ The Calendar is assimilated to that of the Continent, at the ^ instance of Chesterfield, by moving the date 11 days forward. 1167. Sweden. Adolphus of Holstein-Gottorp becomes king, and the elder Bemstorff his chief minister. 1168. Asia. Dupleix, regardless of the Peace of 1748, threatens Madras. Clive, a clerk at Madras, who arrived in India 1744, volunteers as a soldier and is sent to seize Arcot He takes it, and holds it against an attack by French sepoys. 1169. America. The English surveyors, Mason and Dixon, determine the boundaries of Pennsylvania, Delaware and Maryland, and continue the line west till their proceedings are stopped by the Indiana 1761] CULTURE 235 Holbach, Helv^tius, Mine d'Epinay, and, in a less degree, of Mme du Deffand. 1795, German Lit. Kleist's Spring. 1796, Science. Buffon's Histoire ISatiirelle, a large part of the detail of which is furnished by Daubenton and Lac^pMe. 1797, Fhilosophy. Hartley's Observations on Man maintain that simple sensations, solely by the law of contiguity, synchronous and successive, become thought, emotion, voluntary and involuntary action. Diderot is imprisoned for expressing the doctrine of relativity in his Lettre sur les Aveugles. 1798, German Ch. Frederick issues a privilege for the Jews. ri7(in 1799, Italian Ch. Liguori's Glories of Mary. ^'^ 1800, Eng. Lit. Mrs Montagu begins parties of 'blue-stockings ' and is imitated by Mrs Chapman, Hannah More, Elizabeth Garter, Mrs Thrale. 1801, Literature. Voltaire visits Berlin, and quarrels with Maupertuis. 1802, Science. Euler revives the undulatory theory of light 1805, Art. Baumgarten founds modem Aesthetics, and assumes the existence of a special psychological organ. 1804- History. Turgot s Progr^s Successif de TEsprit Humain, a dis- course given at the Sorbonne, maintains that progress follows laws of development The Benedictines comnile L'Art de verifier les Dates. Frederick the Great's M^moires ^ THistoire de Brandenburg. 1806, Politics. Rousseau maintains that Science and Art have been detrimental to morals. 1806. Deaths. Bach, Muratori, Saxe. 1807. Eng. Cb. Byrom's poem on Enthusiasm. [1751 Antinomian excesses occur among the Moravians in England, *- and are sternly rebuked by Wesley and Whitfield. 1808. German Ch. Wetstein's enlarged edition of the New Testament contains variants and commentaries from classics and Rabbinical works. 1809. Eng. Lit Fielding's Amelia. Gray's Elegy. 1810. French Ut The first two volumes of the Encyclopddie ap|)ear, edited by Diderot and D'Alembert (who writes an Introduction), aided by Voltaire, Turgot, Marmontel, Duclos, Daubenton, etc. 1811. Art. The Worcester Porcelain Company is formed. Strange begms to work at Une engraving. 1812. Fhuolo^. Harris' Hermes, a philosophical inquiry concerning universal grammar. 1813. Economics. Hume distinguishes wealth from money, of which a nation may possess too much, and condemns the majority of re- strictions on commerce. 1814. Deaths. D'Aguesseau, Bolingbroke. 236 POLITICS [1762 1170. Scotland. The estates forfeited by the rebellion of 1745 1*2752 are bestowed od the Crown, the revenue being employed for the ^ improvement of the Highlands. 1171. iSrance. De Broglie is sent to Poland to counteract the influence of Russia and Austria, and to work for the election of Conti. 1172. Austria. Spain allies with Austria by the Treaty of Anmjuez, guaranteeing each other's European possessions. The alliance is joined by Sardinia, Naples and Parma. 1173. America. The Trustees of Georgia surrender their charter to the Crown. 1174. Asia. Trichinopoly surrenders to Clive. 1175. Afirica. The Portuguese recognise the Imam of Muscat and declare their limits to be Cape Del^o and Delagoa Bay. 1176. England. The Levant Company, the last of the old nn^ trading associations, is dissolved. ^ 1177. France. The King intervenes on the side of the Archbishop of Paris, and exiles the Parliament of Paris, which has forbidden the clergy to withhold the sacraments, and ordered the seizure of the Archbishop's g^ssessions. The provincial Parliaments support the Parliament of aris. 1178. Germany. Frederick learns the secret articles of the Austro- Russian Treaty^ of 1746 ; but war is prevented b3r England's refusal to aid Russia. France informs England that she will defend Prussia, if attacked, in accordance with the Treaty of 1741. 1179. Austria. Kaunitz leaves Paris and becomes chief minister, persuaded of the impossibility, at the present moment, of the French alliance. Maria Theresa resolves to introduce uniform legislation for all her dominions. 1180. America. Duquesne, Governor of Canada, claiming the Missis- sippi and the St Lawrence and the country west of the AJl^hanies, seizes Fort Duquesne, in the valley of the Ohio, and arrests traders of the Ohio Company. Virginia, in whose dominions lie the Company's lands, loudly protests. 1181. En^and. Pelham dies, and is succeeded by his brother, rt^sA Newcastle, who attempts to induce Fox to lead the Commons. ^ 1182. France. Failing to obtain recognition for the Court which he substitutes for the Parliament, the King recalls that body, forbids the refusal of the sacraments, and exiles the Archbishop. 1183. Spain. Ensenada, who has attempted to drag Spain into the war of France and Endand, falls. Wall, an Irishman, mte Spanish Ambas- sador in London, Becomes first minister. 1764] CULTURE 237 1816, Frenoh Ch. A Parisian Gur6 refuses the sacraments to n 752 persons suspected of Jansenism, and is supported by the Arch- ^ oishop of Paris. 1816, Oerman Ch. Amort's Theologia Moralis et Scholastica, an ethical text-book on anti-probabilist lines. 1817, Science. Franklin draws lightning to his conductor, thus proving it to be electricity. Glairaut explains the motion of the moon's apse. 1818, FhiloBophy. Samuel Johnson, an American disciple of Berkeley, publishes his Elements of Philosophy. 1819, Politics. Achenwall's European Constitutions, a statistical survey. 1820, History. Voltaire's Sifecle de Louis XIV. 1821, Deaths. Alberoni, Bengel, Butler, K^umur. 1822, Eng. Ch. Bishop Lowth's Lectures on the Sacred Poetiy ryiM of the Jews a^ply the ordinary standards of literary criticism, ^ and call attention to parallelism. 1828, French Ch. Astruc, Professor of Medicine at Paris, publishes his Conjectures sur les M^moires originaux de Moses, in which he detects two distinct conceptions, — the Elohistic and Jehovistic, thus explaining the contradictions and repetitions of Genesis. I824, Spanish Ch. Frederick and Ensenada arrange a Concordat, by which the Pope acknowledges the king's right of patronage to nearly all the benefices of Spain, and control over the intr and allies with Oudh and the Moghul Emperor. 1249. America. On pressure from Benjamin Franklin, the agent n766 of Pennsylvania, Pitt, Burke and Camden, Rockingham repeals ^ the Stamp Act, which has brought in no revenue (Feb.), but passes a Declaratory Act asserting the nght of the English Parliament to bind the Colonies ' in all cases whatsoever.' 1250. En^and. The King dismisses Rockingham and summons Pitt, now created Earl of Chatham, and Grafton (tfuly). Chatham's health, however, shortly gives way. 1251. France. Stanislas Leczynski dies, and Lorraine falls to France. 1766] OULTURB 251 1956, Law. Beccaria's Grimes and PanishmentB uiges the humani* sation of the penal law. 1957. Death. Hogarth. 19S8, French Ch. Owing to the peraistent championship of riyge Voltaire, the Galas family is declared innocent ^ La Barre, a youth of 18, is tortured for irreverence to a procession bearing the Sacrament 19 39. Dutch Gh. The Jansenist Ghurch of Utrecht names itself the Old Boman Gatholic Ghurch of the Netherlands, acknowledges the Pope as the visible head of the Ghurch, and accepts the Tridentine decrees. The Pope declares the Gouncil null 1940. Cnturch Hist. The celebration of the Sacred Heart, founded by Mar^ret Alacoque and encouraged by the Jesuits, is sanctioned by the Fope. 1941. Eng. Ut. Bishop Percy, aided by Shenstone, edits Reliques of Ancient Poetry, which contribute to the romantic revival. Ghatterton forges the Bowley Poems. 1942. French Lit. Sedaine's rhilosophe sans le savoir. 194s, Oerman Lit. Nicolai edits the Universal German Library. 1944* Science. Watt constructs a steam-endne, in which the piston is moved by the expansion of steam, aided by the model of Newcomen and by Black's work on latent heat 1945. Philosophy. Tucker's Light of Nature connects the universal motive of pleasure, through the will of God, with the general good. 1946. Politics. D'Argenson advocates communal government and decentralisation, and attacks the feudal regime and restraints on commerce. 1947. Law. Blackstone's Gommentaries on the Laws of England describe the legal theory of the Gonstitution, reject the state of nature as a historical fact, reduce the contract to an instinctive holding together, and state the necessity of a sovereign power. 1948. Eng. Gh. Blackbume's Gonfessional, published anony- rytaa mously, denies that churches have the right to make any ^ confessions of faith. 1949. French Gh. The observance of the Articles of 1682 is re- imposed. 1960. Russian Gh. Gatherine permits liberty of worship, and allows Mohamedans to build mosques. 1961. Eng. Lit Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield. Henry Brooke's Fool of Quality. 1952. German Lit. Wieland's Gomic Tales. 1963. Science. Gavendish discovers hydrogen, or 'inflammable air.' 1964^ Art. Lessing's Laocoon contends that poetry and the plastic arts are each subject to definite conditions, and approves an ideal or universal type in sculpture. 252 POLITICS [1766 1252. Spain. D'Aranda becomes chief minister and introduces secular education, the nomination of the Kota (the chief Ecclesiastical Court), supervision of monasteries and taxation of Church lands. A revolt is caused by sumptuary laws and the domination of foreigners. 1253. Poland. Russia attempts to secure full civil rights for the Dissi- dents; but the strongly Catholic Diet resists and is dissolved. The Russian ambassador, Repnin, organises confederations of the Dissidents, which are joined bv the ' Patriot' party, and force the Diet to promise equal rights and administrative reforms. 1254. Ireland. An Octennial Act is |)aB8ed. (1767 1255. America. Despite the opposition of Shelbume, Towns- ^ hend imposes import duties on ^lass, lead, paper, tea, estimated at £40,000, which is to be spent in paying judges and governors in America. The revenue officers are attack^, and juries refuse to con- vict the offenders. Dickinson attacks the scheme in his Fanners' Letters. Samuel Adams issues a circular letter urging concerted action, though disclaiming independence. The legislative power of New York is suspended in consequence of its refusal to make provision for troops quartered in the colony. 1256. Germany. Frederick renews nis alliance with Russia, promising to support the Polish Dissenters, to enter Poland if Austria enters, and to support Catherine in the event of a war with Turkey. 1257. Russia. Catherine appoints a Commission, the first Assembly since Peter the Great, to omt a new code. 1258. Denmark. Catherine of Russia resigns Holstein-Qottorp and Schleswig to Denmark. 1259. Asia. Clive leaves India, and chaos ensues until the arrival of Warren Hastings. 1260. England. Chatham formally resigns office. ri768 In the General Election, Wilkes is returned for Middlesex. ^ An attempt is made to prevent him taking his seat, and riots break out. A Secretary for the Colonies, or 'American Department,' is created, though the Board of Trade and Plantations still continues. 1261. America. The new Board of Commissioners at Boston seizes the ' Liberty,' which attempts to avoid payment of customs. A riot ensues, and a Convention of del^ates from the towns of Massachusetts meets. Hutchinson asks for two regiments to be sent to Boston. 1262. France. France purchases Corsica from Genoa, which is unable to suppress the revolt of Paoli. 1263. Germany. Maria Theresa formally renounces all claim to Silesia. 1264. Italy. The Pope, as feudal superior, confiscates Parma, the weakest of the enemies of the Jesuits. Don Ferdinand, who has ruled since 1765, is supported by his minister Du Tillot^ and the insult to the 1768] CULTUKE 253 1955. Politics. Ferguson's Essay on Civil Society ascribes |)Togre88 in large measure to war and the well-being of states to activity in the acquisition and defence of liberty, and praises the military states at the expense of the commercial 1956. Economics. Turgot's Reflexions sur la Formation et la Distri- bution des Richesses, a ph^siocratic treatise. 1957. Geography. Bougamville commences his voyage round the world. 1958. Deaths. Astruc, Elizabeth Famese, Gottsched. 1959. French Ch. Oberlin becomes minister in Steinthal, Alsace. vyjM 1960. Spanish Ch. Charles and Aianda banish the Jesuits, ^ whom they suspect of provoking a rising in Madrid against a new tax They are also expelled from the Sicilies and Parma. 1961. Oerman Lit. Lessing's Minna von Bamhelm. Lessing's Hamburg Dramaturgy attempts to establish a national theatre independent of French models and inspired by Shakespere. Lavatet's Swiss Songs. 196S. Science. Sprengel discovers the fertilisation of plants by insects. SpaUanzani attacks the theory of spontaneous generation. 196S. Art. Allan Ramsay becomes portrait painter to Ceorge III. 1964. Philology. Hejme, editor of Virgil, with Emesti and Gesner, founds German classical scholarship. 1965. Economics. Steuart's Political Economy, the last and most complete statement of moderate mercantilism. 1966. Oeography. Maskelyne, Astronomer-Royal, publishes the Nau- tical Almanack, which he conducts for 40 years. 1967. Eng. Ch. Oswald's Appeal to Common Sense founds, with ri yau Beattie and Soane Jenyns, the 'Common Sense School' of English ^ apologists. Lady Huntingdon founds a seminary at Trevecca, of which Fletcher of Madeley becomes President Abraham Booth, a Particular Baptist, publishes his Reign of Grace. 1968. Swiss Ch. Felix Balthasar's Freedom of the Confederates in Religious Matters attacks Ultramontanism and the Jesuits. 1969. Eng. Lit. Sterne's Sentimental Journey. 1970. Art^ The Roval Academy is founded by Reynolds, who becomes first President and delivers Discourses on Art 1971. History. Schrockh's Church Histoiy, with Spittler, Planck and Henke, forms the ^ragmatist school, mostly indifferent to dogma, and attributing everythiiu^ to individuals. 197^. Geography. Cook accompanies a party sent by the Royal Society to Tahiti to watch the Transit of Venus. He surveys the smaller Pacific islands, sails round New Zealand, visits the east coast of 254 POLITICS [1768 Bourbons giyes Pombal the opportunity of combining the states against the Jesuits. France seizes Avignon, and the King of Naples inyades the Papal States. 1265. Poland. The opponents of toleration form the Confederacy of Bar and attempt to kidnap the King. Civil war follows, and Stanislas is supported by Russian arms. Kaunitz discusses the partition of Poland in a memoir to Joseph. 1266. Turkey. Turkey declares war against Russia. 1267. En^and. Wilkes is expelled, but is re-elected. The r^^^g House again expels him, and incapacitates him from sitting ^ during the existing Parliament. A new election is held, and though Wilkes is at the head of the poll, the House declares his opponent, Colonel Luttrell, to be elected. Grenville, Rockingham and Unatham point out that only an Act could deprive the electors of the right of choosing whom they will. Wilkes is imprisoned, but the mob takes his part. Throughout the year the Ein^ and the Ministry are attacked in the Letters of Junius, probably Sir Philip Francis. 1268. America. Parliament urges the King to bring colonists charged with treason to England for trial, as authoriswi by an Act of Henry ViH. The Virginia Assembly therefore passes ' Resolves,' protesting against sending for trial outside the colony, and repeating that it alone can tax itself, and that the colonies, singly and collectively, may petition for redress of grievances. The Assembly is dissolved, but the burgesses agree not to use nor import goods taxed by Parliament The pohcy of non-importation is adopted by the other colonies. 1269. Irance. France expels Paoli from Corsica. 1270. Germany. Russia and Prussia renew their alliance for eleven years. Catherine guarantees the succession of Anspach and Baireuth, and Prussia the constitution of Sweden of 1720, and undertakes to enter Pomerania if it is attacked. Frederick meets Joseph, whom he wishes to detach from France, and offers a Polish partition. 1271. Russia. Russia defeats the Turks, and occupies Moldavia and Bucharest. Russia allies with Denmark to guarantee the Swedish Constitution of 1720. 1272. Afirica. Portugal loses its last foothold in Morocco. 1273. En^and. Grafton resigns and Lord North becomes Prime riyvg Minister. '• Grenville secures the hearing of election petitions by a Committee of 13 instead of by the House. The printers and publishers of Junius' Letters are tried and acquitted. Lord Mansfield declares that a jury cannot decide whether the publication is libellous, but only whether it has been published. Wilkes is elected Alderman and Sheriff of London. 1770] CULTURE 265 Australia, names Botany Bay, and claims possession of New South Wales for the English Grown. Pallas journeys through Russia and Siberia, as a naturalist on the expedition sent to observe the Transit of Venus, 1769. l^S. Deaths. Assemanni, Beimarus, Sterne. 197 J^, Eng. Ch. Price's Dissertations, written from the stand- ri^Ag point of optimistic Deism. ^ >- iP7(5. Oerman Ch. The Coblenz Articles, or list of ^eyances against the Pope, are drawn up by the Archbishops of Mainz, Cologne and Trier, under the direction of Febronius, and presented to Maria Theresa, who takes no notice of them. Mendelssohn publishes an Epistle to Layat«r, who has urged him to desert Judaism. 1976, Church Hist. Spain, France and Naples demand the abolition of the Order of Jesuits ; but Clement XIII. dies, and Ganganelli, a man without strong yiews, is chosen. 1977, French Lit. Ducis adapts Hamlet and other plains of Shakespere for the stage. Voltaire renews his protest against idolatry, and is echoed by Marmontel and La Harpe. Diderot and Grimm, howeyer, eulogise Shakespere, who is henceforth widely studied in France. 1978, Art. Wedgwood opens potteries at Eftruria in Staffordshire and copies Greek designs. Flaxman helps to design and model reliefs. 1979, Science. Boulton and Watt become partners. 1980, Philosophy. Bonnet's Palingdndsie upholds the belief in the resurrection of the body. 1981, Philology. Ihre's Glossarium Suio-Gothicum. Wood's Essay on the Original Genius of Homer asserts that the art of writing was unbiown to Homer. 1982, History. Bobertson's History of the Emperor Charles V. 198S, Geography. Bruce attempts to penetrate to the sources of the Nile from Massowah. 198^, Social. Arkwright patents a spinning roller worked by water- power. 1985. Death. Tersteegen. 1986, Eng.Ch. Wesley denounces Calyinism and Antinomianism nnvQ at the Conference. ^ *■ The orthodox members of the General Baptists separate under the name of the General Baptists' New Communion. The Old Communion gradually merges with Unitarians. 1987, American Ch. John Murray, a Wesleyan, crosses to America and introduces Uniyersalism, which he has learned from James Belly, an Unitarian Minister, in England. 1988, Eng. Lit. Chatterton comes to London and commits suicide. 1989, Oerman Lit. Claudius' Wandsbeck Messenger. 1990, Danish Lit. Ewald's Rolf Erage, the first original Danish tragedy. 256 POLITICS [1770 1274. Spain. At Choiseurs instigation, Spain sends a force to the Falkland Isles, which are claimed hy England, and expels the English. England clamours for war ; but Choiseul^ falls, and Charles is forced to surrender the islands. Aranda falls, and is succeeded by Campomanes. 1275. Germany. Joseph and Frederick meet to concert steps against the Russian adyance towards the Austrian border. 1276. Denmark. Struensee becomes supreme in Denmark, supported by the Queen, and introduces freedom of religion and the press, im- proyes education and the law, and reorganises the army. 1277. America. North repeals all duties but Sd, a pound on tea, retained as an assertion of the right to tax. Some soldiers in Boston fire on the crowd, and the ' Boston Massacre ' ends in the withdrawal of the troops. 1278. England. The Ministry receives support from the Gren- ryin-t ville and Bedford Whigs, and from Grafton and Wedderbum, who *■ is made Solicitor-General. Freedom of reporting is secured by the Chatham and Rockingham sections and the influence of Wilkes. Henceforth publication of debates, though still a breach of privilege, is rarely interrupted. 1279. France. The Parliaments are attacked by Maupeou, and refrise to try cases. Maupeou abolishes the Parliaments and creates a new court. 1280. Germany. Baden-Baden falls to Charles Frederick, Margrave of Baden, a model ruler of the Aufklarung type, who introduces physio- cratic ideas into Germany. 1281. Poland. Prince Henry of Prussia is sent to St Petersburg to discuss partition. Negotiations dra^ on, and Maria Theresa's objec- tions are overruled by Joseph and Kaunitz 1282. En^and. The Royal Marriace Act forbids the descend- r.^^ ants of George 11. to marry without the consent of the sovereign, 1- unless they are 25 and have given one year's notice to the Privy Council and the marriage has not been opposed by Parliament. 1283. America. Adams organises Local Committees of Correspondence, for the discussion of the rights of colonists. The Gaspee, a small vessel of war used for enforcing the Navigation Acts, is captured and burnt. A Commission of Inquiry is sent out, but the authors are not surrendered for trial. 1284. Poland. The first Treaty of Partition is signed at St Petersburg. Russia obtains White Russia, the territory beyond the Dnieper ; Austna the county of Zips, which she incorporates in Hungary, and part of Galicia; Prussia renounces Danzig and Thorn, but obtains West Prussia, ceded to Poland by the Teutonic knights, 1466 (Aug.). Troops are sent to occupy the territories, and the consent of the Diet is extorted, 1773. 1772] CULTURE 267 1991. Art Gainsborough's ' The Blue Boy/ Gosway, the miniaturist, exhibits at the Academy. Ghodowiecki, 'the Berlin Hogarth/ illustrates Minna v. Barohelm, and many other works with scenes from bourgeois life. 1992. Fbilosophy. Holbach's Syst^me de la Nature, borrowed in part from IXAlembert and Naigeon, is attacked by Voltaire, Frederick, and other Deists. Beattie's Essay on Truth attacks Hume. Kant writes De Mundi sensibilis et intelligibilis Forma et Principiis, after being 'awakened by Hume from his dogmatic slumber.' 1998. Politics. Burke's Thoughts on the present Discontents attack the influence of tlie king in pohtics. 1994. Education. Von Felbiger, of Silesia, organises elementary edu- cation in Aiaria Theresa's dommions. 1995. Law. Romagnosi's Origin of Penal Law aids the work of Beccaria. 1996. Economics. Galiani's Dialogues sur le Commerce des Bl^ attack the rigidity of the Physiocrats and recommend different policy for different circumstances. 1997. Social. Hargreaves patents the spinning-jenny, which works several spindles at once. 1998. Deaths. Tiepolo, Whitfield. 1999. Eng. Gh. Blackbume issues Proposals for a Petition to riy^i Parliament against subscription. A petition from the clergy is ^ drawn up at the Feathers Tavern, but it is rejected by 217 to 71. Lindsey, Jebb and other clergy leave the^ Church and become Uni- tarians, and Lindsey founds a congregation in London, 1774. Priestley joins the Unitarians, 1782. In face of a fierce attack on the Minutes of Conference, Wesley dis- avows justification by works, but publishes Fletcher's Checks to Anti- nomianism. The Calvinist case is stated by Toplady and Berridge. 2000. German Gh. Sender's Free Investigation of the Canon. 2001. Eng. Lit. Smollett's Humphry Clinker. Mackenzie's Man of Feeling. 2002. Art. Sulzer's Theory of the Fine Arts declares that beauty con- sists in perfection, and that our pleasure in it rests on the feeling of heightened intellectual activity. 2008. Science. Hewson establishes the essential character of the pro- cess of coagulation of the blood and the forms of the red corpuscles. 2004. Philology. Anquetil du Perron translates the Zend Avesta. Forcellini's Lexicon Latinum. 2005. History. Baynal's Histoire des Indes, a romantic picture of uncivilized life. 2006. Deaths. Qray, Helv^tius, Smollett. 2007. German Ch. Albrecht v. Haller's Chief Truths of Reve- r^-y^ lation, and £uler's Letters to a German Princess, defend '- Christianity. G. 17 268 POLITICS [1772 1285. Sweden. Gostavus, by a bloodless coup d'etat, revokes the Constitution of 1720, becomes absolute, and ends the faction of Hats and Gaps. By the new Constitution the King appoints the Senators and summons the Diet at will, which only discusses what he chooses to hiy before them. He abolishes torture, allows a free press, and reforms the currency, the army and the navy. 1286. Denmark. The King is forced to sign the arrest of the Queen and Struensee, who is executed. 1287. Turkey. A truce is arranged and a Congress meets ; but the Russian terms are not accepted, and war breaks out afresh. 1288. Asia. Warren Hastings is sent out as Governor of Bengal, restores order, and organises the administration on English principles. 1289. America. Lord North sends ships laden with tea to ryriro Boston. Hutchinson refuses to send them away, and young men *- rush on board and fling the tea overboard. 1290. Ireland. Flood obtains the recall of the hated Lord Townshend, and joins the administration of Lord Harcourt. 1291. France. A legacy from his patron to Beaumarchais is disputed by the heir, who loses the case and appeals. Beaumarchais bribes the wife of Goezman, the judge appointed to report, who nevertheless pronounces against him, and is therefore exposed by Beaumarchais in a Mdmoire, which damages the prestige of Maupeou's Parliament. Avignon is restored to the Papacy on the suppression of the Jesuits. 1292. Denmark. The disputes with the line of Holstein-Gottorp are ended by the cession of Oldenburg to the younger line in exchange for their share of Holstein, which is now entirely incorporated in the Danish monarchy. 1293. Russia. Pougatcheff pretends to be Peter HI., revolts, and is joined by the Cossacks of the Don. The rebellion checks Russian advance in Turkey. 1294. Asia. Lord North's Regulating Act establishes a Supreme Court under Elijah Impey, makes the Governor of Bengal, Warren Hastings, Governor-General of India, and appoints a Council of four to aid and control him. The election of the Governor-General is given to the Directors. 1295. England. Clive's mind is affected by the charges against ryrnA him during the discussions on the Regulating Act, and he com- ^ mits suicide. Wilkes is re-elected for Middlesex and allowed to take his seat, and is also elected Lord Mayor. 1296. America. The petition of Massachusetts for the removal of its governor is rejected by the Privy Council, and Franklin is insulted. The port of Boston is closed, the Assembly of Massachusetts is dis- solved by Gage, the charter is annulled, troops are quartered, and public meetings are forbidden without the leave of the governor. Massa- chusetts calls a Congress, attended by all the Colonies but Georgia, and 1774] CULTURE 259 2008. Sng. Lit. The MominR Post is founded. 2009. Qerman Lit. Wieland settles in Weimar as tutor to Earl August. 2010. Science. Bom^ de I'lsle's Essai de Crystallographie proves that the angles in each class of minerals are constant. Rutherford describes nitrogen. 2011. Philology. Herder declares language to have had a natural origin, and to be the necessary expression of man's inner life. 2012. Law. Mansfield declares, in the case of Somerset, that slavery cannot exist in England. 2015. Qeography. Cook sets out to explore the Southern Continent, of which rumours had reached Dampier, and discovers New Caledonia. 20H. Agricnlture. Coke begins to farm at Holkham, Norfolk, and introduces bones, oil-cake, and stall-feeding. 2016. Death. Swedenboig. 2016. Church Hist. The Society of Jesus is abolished b^ the i^^^ Bull Dominus ac Redemptor. The Order continues to exist in *- Russia and Prussia. 2017. Eng. Lit. Goldsmith's She Stoops to Conquer. Johnson and Boswell visit Scotland. Steevens revises Dr Johnson's edition of Shakespere. Malone ap- pends his investigations into the order of the plays. 2018. Qerman !&. Goethe's Gotz von Berlichingen begins the Sturm und Drang period. Bulger's Lenore. 2019. Science. The brothers Montgolfier raise balloons by hot air. 2020. Philology. Lord Monboddos Origin of Language anticipates Bopp. 2021. Law. John Erskine's Institutes of the Law of Scotland. 2022. Social. Export of com from England on a large scale ceases. Foreign com is admitted at 6t7. when the price is 48^., at 2^. ^d. between 44.9. and 48^., and at 24s. Sd, when under 44«. Exportation is forbidden above 44^., and 68. bounty is given below that price. Pombal decrees the freedom of the grandsons of slaves in Portugal, and of all born subsequent to this declaxation. 2023. Death. Chesterfield. 2024, Irish Ch. Catholics are allowed to take a simple oath of ryrfTA allegiance to the king. L-"^//* 2025, Qerman Ch. Lessing publishes fragments of B,eimarus, which are attacked by Pastor Goeze of Hamburg and defended by Lessing. Isenbiehl refers Isaiah's reference to the Virgin-born Emmanuel to past history. 2026, American Ch. Anna Lee, a Shaker, settles in New York State with 30 companions, who possess in common, remain unmarried and cherish millenarian ideas. 17—2 260 POLITICS [1774 by Samuel and John Adams, Washington, Patrick Henry, Dickinson, Jay, Pejrton Randolph. Jefferson draws up a Summary View of the Bights of British America, denying the legistative supremacy of Parlia- ment. A moderate Declaration of Bights is issued, and the American Association is formed to organise a non-importation agreement, boy- cotting individuals who refuse to join. Burke speaks on American taxation. The Quebec Act secures the legal establishment of Catholicism and the restoration of French civil law. 1297. I^ance. Maurepas becomes Premier, Turgot Controller-General, Vergennes Foreign Secretary, and Malesherbes Controller of the House- hold Maurepas recalls the Parliaments, against the wish of Turgot 1298. Turkey. Bomanzov wins a decisive victory, and the peace of Eutchuks Eainardji ends the war with Bussia. The Tartars of the Crimea are declared independent of Turkey and are brought under Bussian influence ; Bussia sends an ambassador to Constantinople, sur- renders the conquered provinces except Azov, obtains privileges for the Christians, and promises for the better government of the Principalities, free navigation in Turkish waters, ana a footing in the Crimea. To compensate, Austria obtains part of the old temtory of Transylvania, a link with her recent acquiBitions from Poland. Aided by Bussian influence in the Levant, Greek commerce makes great progress. 1299. Asia. To combat the Mahrattas, Hastings allies with Oudh and lends troops to the Nawab to aid in seizing Bohilcund from tiie Bohillas. 1300. Scotland. Dundas becomes Lord Advocate and rules ^775 Scotland till 1803, stubbornly resisting the cry for Borough and L ' '*' Parliamentwy reform. 1301. America. Chatham and Burke propose schemes of conciliation for the colonists, which are rejected, and new repressive measures are passed. A small British force sent to seize stores at Concord scatters some American volunteers at Lexington (April), and, on its return, is attacked. Boston is besieged, and bunker's Hill is held against two British attacks, but captured in the third. An ofier of Lord North before the battle to abandon the claim to tax anj colony which will provide for its own defence and government now arrives, and is rejected. A second Congress, attended by all the Colonies, is held at Philadelphia, and sends an Olive Branch Petition for repeal of the obnoxious mws, which is rejected in England. An army is raised, and Washington is made General Franklin drafts the first plan of federal union. 1302. France. Turgot establishes free trade in com within the country, and, with Malesherbes, who becomes Minister of the Interior, is hotly attacked by the nobles and clergy. Maurepas begins to intrigue against his colleagues. The Uomte de Saint-Germain reorganises the army, and Sartine increases the navy. 1775] CULTURE 261 _ . ^ I^M I I I - — - - ■ .- 20^. Polish Ch. The Jesuits are expelled. 2028. Eng. Lit. Chesterfield's Letters to his Son. Warton's History of English Poetiy. W29. Qerman Ut. Qoethe's Sorrows of Werther introduces the senti- mentalism of Rousseau. Justus Moser's Patriotic Phantasies attack the ideas of Rousseau and the Aufklarun^. 2050, Science. Pnestley discovers oxygen ^discovered independently by Scheele in Sweden, 1775) and calls it depmogisticated air. Maskelyne, Astronomer Roval, aided by Hutton, estimates the density of the earth, measured &om Mount Schiehallion (Loch Tay), to be 4^ times that of water. Desmarest's Essay on Volcanoes declares basalt volcanic. 2051, Art. Paris is divided into Gluckists and Piccinists. 2052, Education. Basedow applies Rousseau's methods in his Phi- lanthropinum at Dessau, whicn points the way to the creation of Realschulen. J. H. Campe becomes Director, 1776. 20SS, Philosophy. Dom Deschamps, a Benedictine, dies, leaving a treatise, in manuscript, which anticipates the ideas of H^el. 20Si. Politics. Cartwright's American Independence the Glory and Interest of Great Britain. 20S5. Deaths. Glive, Goldsmith, Quesnai. 2086. ytetix^ Ch. St Martin, who has been introduced to [1775 mysticism by the Portuguese Jew, Martinez Paschalis, and by ^ the study of the writings of Bohme, publishes his mystical work, Des Erreurs et de la V^rit^. 2087. Oerman Ch. Griesbach's Greek Testament, the first really critical edition, based on that of the Elzevirs. 2088. Eng. Lit. Sheridan's Rivals, and The Duenna. 2089. French Lit. Beaumarchais' Barbier de Seville. WJfl. Qerman Ut. (}oethe settles in Weimar, as the friend of Earl August, and obtains the post of Court preacher for Herder. 2OJ1I. Italian Lit. Alfieri's first play, Geopatra. 20Ji2, Polish Ut. Erasicki satirises the State and the monks. 20JfS, Science. Werner begins to lecture at the Saxon School of Mines at Freiburg, explaining the crust of the earth by the action of water, establishing geological succession, and classifying minerals. Fabricius, a pupil of Linnaeus, classifies insects in his Systema Entomologiae. Rant's Anthropology anticipates the idea of the evolution of man from animals. 20^4. Politics. Burke's speech on the conciliation of America. Delolme's Treatise on uie English Constitution. Thomas Spence, a schoolmaster, and Ogilvie, Professor at Aberdeen, advocate the nationalization of the land. Necker's Legislation et le Commerce des Grains attacks Turgot. 262 POLITICS [1776 1303. Austria. Turkey is compelled to cede Bukovina. 1304. Spain. lyAranda fiaJls, owing to an unsucceBsfiil campaign against the Moors, and Florida Blanca becomes chief minister. 1305. Asia. To support Francis Nuncomar forges evidence of pecula- tion by Hastings, but is hung by the Supreme Ck)urt 1306. England. Gartwriffht and Stanhope begin to agitate for ryrna Parliamentary reform. Wilkes' motion, however, is lost in the ^ Commons without a division. The Whigs cease to attend Parliament, in protest against the war. 1307. America. A colonial invasion of Canada is repulsed (March), (rage's successor, Howe, is forced by Washington to evacuate Boston n^arch). Failing to obtain soldiers in England, Geoige HI. hires German mercenaries. On the suggestion of Virginia, Gonffress votes a Declaration of Inde- pendence, written by Jefferson, revised by Franklin and John Adams, and defended and carried by Adams (Julv 4). Howe occupies New York and Rhode Island (Sept.), but Washington drives in outposts on the Delaware and in New Jersey. The troops, however, desert in great numbers, and Congress flees to Baltimore. Washington ends the year's campaign by capturing the German camp. Lee of Virginia proposes Articles of Confederation ; and new State Constitutions are drawn up. Silas Deane is sent to Paris to beg for alliance, and obtains a sum of money. 1308. nance. Turcot abolishes the Corv^ and the Jurandes, or privi- leged corporations, sJters the Gabelle, and reduces the expenses of the royal household. The King is induced to hold a lit de justice, but is won over by the party of reaction, and Tuigot and Malesherbes are dismissed, owing to the Queen and Maurepas. Necker becomes Compt- roller-General The Corvee, the Jurandes and the customs on com are restored. 1309. Italy. Tanucci falls, and is succeeded by Sir John Acton. 1310. America. Franklin arrives in Paris to seek help for the [3^777 colonies. His mission is aided by Vergennes and Beaumarchais, ^ and Lafavette and other volunteers join Washington. The Colonials win at Princeton and recover New Jersey ; but Howe defeats Washington at Brandywine (Sept.), and occupies Philadelphia. Burgoyne, however, emissary from Canada to join Clmton, is forc«i to capitulate at Saratoga (Oct.). Conway plots to supersede Washin^n by Gates. Washington winters in Valley Forge, rennsvlvania, where troops suffer from want of food and clothing, but where they are drilled by Sterben, a German veteran. The Articles of Confdieration replace the King of England by Con- gress, to which little power is given. 1311. Portugal. Joseph dies and Pombal is dismissed. By the Treaty 1777] CULTURE 263 Boncerf 8 Incony^nients des Droits F6odaux shows that the lords would be better by commutation of rights, and adds that if they oppose, the king can enforce it. BOjfS. Eng. Ch. Eennicott points out the untrustworthiness of ri 770 the Textus Receptus. ^ 2046. Qerman Ch. Weishaupt founds the Illuminati in Bavaria. The members, though Deist, Bousseauist, and believers in perfectibility, are neither Antinomian nor revolutionary, but are suppressed by the Bavarian Gfovemment, 1786. 2047. Italian Lit. Ganganelli's Letters are published, perhaps with interpolations. 2048. Politics. Bentham's Fragment on Government attacks Black- stone's d, priori theories of law and contract. Tom raine's Common Sense encourages the American colonies to revolt^ and shows why reunion, even if possible, is undesirable. 2049. Histoiy. The first volume of Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire appears. The chapters relating to Christianity are hotly attacked. 2060. Economics. Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations, influenced by the writings of Hume and the physiocrats, attacks the theory and practice of Mercantilism, discusses the canons of taxation, recommends the division of labour, and asserts that rent, wages and profits are the elements of price. 2051. Qeography. Cook sets out on his third voyage, to attempt the North West Passage from the Asiatic side, discovers the Sandwich Islands, but is turned back by the ice-fields, and is killed by the natives at Hawaii, 1779. 2052. Social. Parliament passes a resolution against the Slave Trade. 205S. Death. Hume. 2054^ Eng. Ch. Priestley's Disquisitions on Matter and Spirit, ryfffft influenced by Hartley and Boscovitch, declare the soul material. *- At the same time his Doctrine of Philosophical Necessity attacks the belief in the freedom of the will. Blair's Sermons. 2055. Qerman Ch. Sailer, a mystical and conciliatory Catholic, begins to teach at Ingoldstadt. 2056. Eng. Lit. Sheridan's School for Scandal. Clara Reeve's Old English Baron. 2067. Science. Coulomb invents the torsion balance. Lavater's Physiognomy. 2068. Economics. James Anderson's Nature of the Com Laws ex- plains the true theory of rent His work, however, probably remains unknown to Malthus and West. 2059. Social. A Tailors' Co-operative Workshop is formed at Birming- ham to employ men on strike. 264 POLiTTCS [1777 of San IldefonAo, Spain and Portugal settle their disputes in South. America. 1312. Switzerland. The Cantons, in fear of Austria, ally with Louis XVI. 1313. Ireland. Grattan obtains a Relief Bill for the Catholics, [ttuq and a few commercial concessions. i- 1314. America. France openly allies with the Colonies, undertaking to fight till their independence is recognised (Feb.), and sends a fleet to New York. Lord North hereupon declares war against France. The English evacuate Philadelphia (June), but reach New York, owing to the treason of Lee. The campaign in the south, suspended since 1776, is resumed, and Savannah is taken. Jefferson proposes that all slaves bom henceforward be free. Nootka Sound is discovered. 1315. Qermany. In consequence of the death of the Elector of Bavaria, the younger House of Wittelsbach becomes extinct, and the Electorate ends. The heir, by the original partition of 1310, the childless (]!harles Theodore, Elector Palatine, is led by Joseph to recognise old claims on Lower Bavaria and part of the Upper Palatinate. Austrian troops occupv the ceded districts. Frederick: the Great negotiates with Charles Theodore's heir, the Duke of Zweibriicken, and encourages him to protest. Frederick and Joseph join their armies ; but, owing to the protests of Russia and the timidity of Maria Theresa, nothing but skirmishing on the Bohemian frontier takes place. 1316. Spain. A treaty of perpetual alliance is concluded with Portucal. 1317. Africa. Spain acquires Fernando Po, in the Oulf of Guinea. 1318. America. The English invade South Carolina without r,„„Q resistance. L-'^''*' 1319. West Indies. The French fleet takes St Vincent and Grenada. 1320. Ireland. Nearly all the troops being withdrawn for the war, Protestant volunteers come forward, in full sympathy with the 'Patriots,' who are led by Flood and Grattan, and, on the re-assembling of Parlia- ment, demand free trade. Lord North concedes free export of woollens and free trade with the Colonies. Dissenters are admitted to civil and military office. 1321. France. Necker suppresses sinecures, and orders a report on tolls. 1322. Spain. War is declared against England, and French and Spanish fleets beside Gibraltar and sail up the Channel unchallenged. 1323. Qermany. Maria Theresa writes to Fr^erick, and a 0)ngress takes place at Teschen, with French and Russian mediation. The war of the Bavarian Succession is terminated, Joseph obtaining the Jura district, and the rights of the Duke of Zweibriicken being confirmed. Austria agrees to the future union of the margravates of Anspach and Baireuth with the Prussian monarchy. 1779] CULTURE 265 Howard's State of the Prisons announces the result of his travels and investigations. Certain of his recommendations are embodied in an Act, 1778. meo. Death. Haller. 1^061. Eng. Ch. Sir George Savile obtains privileges for Catholics [3^773 in reference to the holding of land and to ^ucation. '- 2062. Frenoh Ch. The Commission des K^liers, instituted by the King to reform the regulars, inspires an edict which regulates the admission and establishes a minimum number in monastic houses. As a result of the edict, nine congregations disappear. The Commission is abolished 1784. £063. Eng. Lit. Fanny Bumejr's Evelina. 2O64. French Lit. Voltaire visits Paris and meets with a remarkable reception. 2066. Qerman Lit. Herder's collection of national songs leads to the study of folk-lore. 2066. Science. Benjamin Thompson (later Count Rumford) commences experiments on heat by friction. Lavoisier explodes phlogiston, |)roving that in burning a gas is taken up out of the air. This discovery is accepted by Black, but rejected by Piiestley. 2067. Geography. Bennell's chart of banks and currents founds oceanography. 2068. Social. Mesmer, who has discovered Animal Magnetism, visits Paris. A committee, of which Franklin and Bailly are members, examine him and denounce him as an impostor. 2069. Deaths. Chatham, Linnaeus, Bx)usseau, Voltaire. 2070. Eng. Ch. Dissenting Ministers and schoolmasters are vyin^ relieved from subscription. ^ Cowper and Newton's Olney Hvmns. W71. Scotch Ch. A riot takes pkce in Glasgow against the Catholics. Bishop Hay writes to King George and begs for protection. 2072. German Ch. Princess Galitzin settles in Miinster and gathers round her most of the distinguished Catholics of Germany. 207S. Eng. Lit. Dr Johnson's Lives of the Poets. 2074. Qerman Lit. Lessing's Nathan the Wise (a portrait suggested by the character of Mendelssohn) contributes to the spread of ideas of toleration. Campe's B^binson the Younger. 2075. Science. Ingenhousz investigates the power possessed by vege- tables to purify or poison the air, and experiments on the nutrition of plants. 2076. Art. Gillray and Bowlandson commence English caricature and satire. 2077. Philosophy. Hume's Dialogues on Natural Beligion reject Deism. 266 POLITICS [1779 1324. Africa. Endand takes French possessioiis in Senegal and Qovee. 1325. Asia. The Pint Mahiatta war is caused by the intenrention of France and England in a disputed succession of the Peshwa. 1326. England. After a petition from Yorkshire and public [1700 meetings throughout the country, Burke introduces a Bill for ^ Economical Reform, to abolish sinecures. Dunning carries a resolution that ' the influence of the crown has increased, is increasing, and ought to be diminished.' On the same day that the Duke of Richmond proposes manhood sufirage and annual Parliaments, a mob, led by Lord George Gordon, President of the Protestant Association, founded 1778, marches to Westminster with a netition to repeal Savile's Act of 1778, and sacks the Chapels of the Catholic Ambassadors, bums Newgate, and for six days ravages London. 1327. America. Clinton takes Charlestown, Comwallis defeats Gates in South Carolina, and Virginia is attacked. Greene, however, begins to drive the English out of the Carolinas and Georgia. Benedict Arnold, one of Washington's ablest lieutenants, plots to betray the American forts on the Hudson. Major Andrd, the British agent, is caught and hung ; but Arnold escapes. 1328. Ireland. Grattan and the Irish Volunteers demand Home Rule, subject only to the King. Free Trade is granted. 1329. France. Necker abolishes the fanning of taxes, and creates a provincial assembly for the Province of Berry, to which the duties of the intendants are to pass. 1330. Holland. England learns that the Pensionary of Amsterdam had projected a treaty with the Colonies, 1778, and sent supplies, and therefore declares war. 1331. Spain. Rodney defeats the Spanish fleet off Cape St Vincents and relieves Gibraltar. 1332. Austria. Joseph determines to transfer the Austrian territories of independent Bishoprics to native sees. The small states resolve on a league, and appeal to Prussia to support it. Frederick attempts to obtain the support of Russia, which, however, plunges into a Turkish war. Joseph meets Catherine, and further alienates ner from Prussia. Joseph abolishes serfdom in Bohemia, Hungary and the Southern provinces, and, later, in Austria proper. 1333. RoBsia. To prevent English ships searching neutral vessels for enemies' goods and seizing neutral vessels trading with their enemies' ports, Catherine declares that neutral vessels carrying enemies' goods may trade with belligerents in non-contraband articles. This declara- tion is confirmed by France, Spain, Austria, Prussia and the Northern Powers, which form the 'Armed Neutrality.' 1334. Asia. Hyder Ali overruns the Camatic. 1335. England. The Secretary of State for the Colonies and the rj^^g^^ Council of Trade and Plantations are abolished. 1781] CULTURE 267 2078. Geography. ReimeJl's Bengal Atlas. 2079. Social. (>ompton invents a spinning-machine known as the *mule.' 2080. Death. Garrick. 2081. Eng. Ch. Baikes founds Sunday Schools at Gloucester. ri7Qn The Sunday School Union is founded 1785. ^^'^ The Bampton Lectureship in Christian Apologetics is endowed and the first Sermons are delivered. Martin Madan, an Anglican clergyman, advocates polygamy as sanctioned by Mosaic law. 2082. Qerman Ch. Lessing's Education of the Human Bace describes the religions of the world as steps in an evolution not yet completed. 2083. German Lit. Wieland's Oberon. Frederick the Great's De la littdrature fran^aise praises Gellert and Gesner, and is criticised by Justus Moser. 208 4. Bohemian Lit. The Czech language is expelled from the schools, and a great patriotic revival begins, to which I>obrowsky's Commen- taries on Bonemian Literature contribute. 2085. Art. Erard manufactures his first piano. 2086. Science. John Brown's Elementa Medicinae teaches that most diseases arise from debility, not from strength, and attacks the lowering treatment. Lagrange explains the libration of the moon. 2087. Law. Bentham's Principles of Morals and Legislation are printed, but are not j^ublished till 1789. Filan^en's Science of Legislation pleads for the reform of procedure. 2088. Pohtics. Cartwright founds the Society for Constitutional iofor- mation, from which the Corresponding Society springs. 2089. History. Johannes MiiUer's History of Switzerland. 2090. Social. The twelfth Earl of Derby founds the 'Derby' race. 2091. Deaths. Blackstone, Condillac, Maria Theresa. 2092, Eng. Ch. Lady Huntingdon, who has built a chapel in ryt^i Spa Fields, is compelled to register it under the Toleration Act, ^ and becomes recognised as a Dissenter. She is, in consequence, deserted by Venn, Berrid^e, Bomaine and other clergy. 2098, German Ch. Planck's History of Protestant Dogma. 2094, Austrian Ch. The Emperor grants Toleration to Protestants and members of the Greek Church, though the practice of their worship remains limited, and opens offices to all. 700 out of the 2000 monasteries in the dominions of the Emperor are dissolved, and Bulls are excluded until they receive the Emperor's approval, a German Bible and German hymns are to be used, and no money to be sent to Bome. Six new bishoprics are created by the Eiuperor. The Pope comes to Vienna to protest, but effects nothing, 1782. 268 POLITICS [1781 1336. America. Cornwallis routs Greene in North Carolina^ but is forced, by lack of numbers, to withdraw to Virginia. He fortifies Torktown, on the shores of the Chesapeake, but is blockaded by De Grasse's West Indian fleet and by an American army, and capitu- lates (Oct.). De Grasse seizes several of the West Indies. 1337. France. Necker publishes his ' Compte rendu ' in order to retain the confidence of the moneyed classes, but is dismissed (May). The period of reform ends, and tne feudal reaction increases. Boturiers are excluded from military command. 1338. Netherlands. The Emperor obtains the surrender of the Barrier towns. 1339. Austria. Joseph and Catherine form a close alliance, Joseph allowing Catherine a free hand in Turkey, on the tacit understanding that Russia will help him in Germany. 1340. Asia. Hastings demands money from the Bajah of Benares for the war, and, on his refusal, deposes him. He next demands money from the Nawab of Oudh, and helps him to secure his father's treasure, retained by his mother and grandmother. Eyre Uoote defeats Hyder Ali, with whom a French fleet under Suff'ren co-operates. 1341. AfHca. The Kaffirs, who have been slowly drifting south, first come into conflict with the Boers. England sends a fleet to seize the Gape ; but Suflren interposes, and a French regiment garrisons Cape Town till the Peace. 1342. En^and. North resigns (March), and Bockingham re- [1700 turns with Fox and Shelbume, the leader of the Chatham Whigs. ^ Burke's Bill, which has been thrown out, 1781, is modified and passed. Goveniment contractors are excluded from the House, and pensions are reduced. Bockingham dies (July), and Shelbume, with Pitt as Chan- cellor of the Exchequer and leader of the House, becomes Premier. Pitt's motion to consider the state of representation is lost. The pro- ceedings against Wilkes are expunged from the Journals. 1343. Ireland. Grattan and tne Protestants pass resolutions for inde- pendence and free trade, and repeal of anti-CathoUc laws, and Fox carries the repeal of the Act of 1720. ' Grattan's Parliament,' however, is chosen by Protestants alone, and has no control over the executive. 1344. Spain. Minorca is taken firam England by Spain, after a long siege. 1345. West Indies. Bodney defeats De Grasse, and saves the English West Indies (April). 1346. America. The Preliminaries of Peace, arranged by Franklin, John Adams, and Jay, are signed (Nov.), and acquiesced in by America. 1347. Asia. Hyder Ali dies, and his son, Tippoo, makes peace. 1782] CULTURE 269 2095. Eng. Lit. The Clarendon Press is founded at Oxford. 2096. French Lit Bousseau's Confessions. 2097. Oexman Ut. Voss' Translation of the Odjrssey aids the classical revival Schiller's Bobbers, his first romantic play, is followed by Fiesco, 1783, and Eabala u. Liebe, 1784. 2098. Science. William Herschel discovers Uranna Lavoisier declares that nothing in nature is lost and nothing created. Monge's paper on the curves of curvature. 2099. Art. Miller founds the Gewandhaus concerts at Leipzig. Houdon sculptures a statue of Voltaire (Paris). 2100. Philosophy. Kant's Critique of Pure Reason declares know- ledge to arise jointly from impressions and from the forms or moulds of the mind which receives them, and discusses the arguments for the existence of God. His teaching is spread by Reinhold, Fichte, and Schiller, and criticised bv Nicolai, Scnulze, and Herder. 2101. Education. Pestalozzi, who has received a number of children in his house at Neuhof near Bern, unfolds his theories of education in his Leonard and Gertrude. Warren Hastings founds a Mohammedan College at Calcutta. 2102. Deaths. Lessing, Turgot. [1782 2105, Eng. Ch. Priestley's Corruptions of the Christian Church is attacked by Horsley, but imitated by Gilbert Wakefield and others. Charles Simeon is ordained curate of Trinity Church, Cambridge, and introduces the evangelical movement into the University. 210j^, Qerman Ch. Herder's Spirit of Hebrew Poetry applies the conception of evolution, and shows that the Psalms were the work of many hands. 2106. Church Hist. Bartolotti projects an union with the Eastern Church, suggesting that the Filioque shall be declared a Hheolog[ical truth/ not a dogma, and that the primacy of Bome should be recognised as in primitive times. 2106. iSng. Lit. Mrs Siddons, engaged by Sheridan for Drury Lane theatre, makes her ddbut, and acts henceforward with her brother J. P. Kemble. Fanny Bume/s Cecilia. 2107. Italian Lit. Tiraboschi's History of Italian Literature. 2108. Science. Herschel catalogues the double stars, and discovers that the solar system is moving towards the constellation of Hercules. 2109. Social. Gilbert's Act allows parishes or unions to nominate Guardians, who are obliged to find work. Wages are supplemented from the rates, and out-door relief for the able-booi^ becomes common. 2110. Deaths. D'Anville, Lord Eames, Metastasio, Pombal, Tanucci. 270 POLITICS [1783 1348. England. Shelbume is deserted by his colleagues, and ry^^ replaced by a coalitioii of Fox and North, with Portland as ^ nominal Premier (April). Fox introduces an India Bill, firamed by Burke, and transferring the government from the Board to seven Commissioners appointed by the Parliament for four years and after by the Crown. The Bill is rejected in the Lords, and the ministry tails (Dec^. Pitt becomes Premier, with a large majority against him in the Commons. His resolution for reform obtains 149 votes. 1349. America. A treaty is signed at Paris (Sept.), and the inde- Sendence of the United States is acknowledged, llieir boundaries are eclared to be the Mississippi, the Floridas, and Canada. The Colonials promise mercy to loyalists, undertake to pay private debts to British creaitors at the outset of the war, and obtain a share in the fisheries off Newfoundland. 1 350. France. By the Treaty of Versailles with France and Spain, the latter retains Minorca and receives back Florida ; France may fortify Dunkirk, forbidden by the Treaty of Utrecht, and recovers her islands in the Ajitilles, and ^negal and Goree in Africa. Calonne becomes finance minister, and, by disguising the state of the finances, obtains loans. 1351. Holland. England obtains right of traffic with the Dutch East Indies. 1352. Russia. Russia annexes the Crimea and Euban, and reaches the Black Sea. 1353. Bohemia. Joseph enforces the German lang^uage, suppresses the permanent Committee of the Diet, and transfers its authority to the central government, leaving the Estates the rijght to vote the taxes. These measures lead to the growth of a nationalist movement 1354. Asia. Agha Mohammed, a Persian chief, invades Georgia, and sacks Tiflis. Russia intervenes, and takes Baku. 1355. England. Pitt appeals to the country, and obtains a large [1704 majority (May). His first budget reduces the duties on tea and ^ spirits. In consequence of Fox's exclusion after the Westminster election, the poll is reduced from forty to fifteen days. 1356. Scotland. The Disarming Act is repealed. 1357. Netherlands. Joseph demands free navigation of the Scheldt, and revives old claims in Maestricht The Dutch resist and are joined by Prussia and Sweden. 1358. Denmark. BerDstor£r becomes supreme, and abolishes serfdom, improves education, encourages commerce, and allows liberty of the press- 1359. Hungary. Joseph outrages national sentiment by removing the crown of Hungary to Vienna and making German the official language. On the other hand he suppresses the feudal courts and taxes the land- owners. A rebellion breaks out in Transylvania. 1784] CULTURE 271 1^111. Oerman Ch. Eichhom's Introdactioii to the Old Testa- ^^^03 ment first exhaustively investigates the sources and contents of '- tiiie writings, most of which he attributes to several hands. ^112, Austrian Ch. The Emperor makes marriage a civil contract, and allows divorce. In 1784 he reserves a veto on the ordinances of the Bishops, whom he proposes to appoint without the confirmation of the Pope. He sJso suppresses the (uocesan seminaries, and institutes schools, the teachers of which he appjoints. 211s. Amerioaii Ch. The Mennonites settle in America. 211J^ dmroh Hist. Moses Mendelssohn's Jerusalem pleads for the emancipation of the Jews. 2115. Eng. Lit. Grabbers The Village. Blair's Lectures on Rhetoric. 2116. Science. Hunter foimds a museum in Leicester Square for Com- parative Anatomy. 2117. FhilOBophy. E[ant's Prolegomena to any possible Metaphysic replies to attacks on the Critique of Pure B.ea8on. 2118. Social. Earl Friedrich of Baden abolishes serfdom. 2119. Deaths. D'Alembert, Euler. 2120. Eng. Ch. Wesley leaves the government of his societies ry?^ to a Conference of 100 preachers in his Deed of Declaration, ^ on condition that they accept his notes on the New Testament (based on Bengel), and his sermons. He also secretly ordains Coke and Ashbury ' superintendents ' in America, and two diders retire from the movement in disgust. 2121. Scotch Ch. At the instigation of Bishop Skinner, the Scotch Bishops consecrate Seabury Bishop of Connecticut. This departure calls attention to the Scotch Church, and earns the gratitude of the English Church, which cannot conveniently consecrate owing to the war. 2122. Eng. Ut. Beckford's Caliph Vathek. 2123. French Lit. Beaumarchais' Figaro. Bemardin de St Pierre's £tudes de la Nature. 2124. Swedish Lit. Gustavus IIL founds an Academy of Arts and Sciences. 2126. Science. Atwood's Machine exhibits and verifies the accelerative action of gravity. Cavendish explodes oxygen and hydrogen into water. CuUen's Practice of Physic displaces Boerhaave and the pathologists, who trace diseases to the vitiation of the fluids of the body, but attri- butes too much to the solids of the body. Laplace explains the long inequality of Jupiter and Saturn pulling one another, but ultimately reoccupyin^ their old position. Hauy's Crystallographie discovers uie law of symmetry and the law of the alteration of axes. M26. Art. David's Vow of the Horatii, and Brutus, found the classic reaction in France. Bewick's Engravings to his Select Fables revive wood-engraving. 272 POLITICS [1784 1360. Asia. Pitt passes an India Bill, establishing a Board of Control, composed of Ministers and Privy Councillors, which revises despatches, and can, if necessary, issue orders without the consent of the Directors. Except for the Governor-General and the highest officers, patronage remains with the Directors. The authority of the Gk)vemor-Qeneral over the Governors of Madras and Bombay is increased. 1361. America. Slavery is partially abolished in Connecticut. 1362. England. Pitt's third attempt at Parliamentary Reform, nyge voting one million pounds to buy up and disfranchise 72 nomina- i- tion seats, giving the seats to London and the Counties, is rejected, and he never makes another attempt. John Adams arrives in London as ambassador of the United States^ and is coldly received. 1363. Ireland. Pitt's proposals for a commercial union, complete free trade, and a contribution to the navy, are thrown out by the English manufacturers. His modified proposals are rejected at Dublin. 1364. France. Cardinal Rohan is falsely informed that the Queen wishes for a valuable diamond necklace. When the jeweller demands the first instalment of pajrment, the fraud is ezpos^, but the Court loses prestige. 1365. Germany. The Emperor attempts to induce Charles Theodore to exchange Bavaria for the Austrian Netherlands except Luxemburg and Namur. liie Duke appeals for help to FredericK, who forms the Fiirstenbund with Saxony and Hanover, joined by the Archbishop of Mainz and many princes, and defeats the scheme (Julv). Joseph makes a treaty with the Dutch by Frencn mediation. His sovereignty is recognised over part of the Scheldt, and he sells his claims to Maestricht and the part of the Scheldt outside his dominions. 1 366. Asia. Hastings, finding himself unsupported by Pitt, resigns, and returns to England. 1367. England. Pitt abrogates the Methuen Treatv, and con- [1703 eludes a commercial treaty with Vergennes, by which duties ^ between France and England are largely decreased. Pitt creates a sinking fund, by which one million pounds, raised ever^ year by extra taxes, is to accumulate for the pajrment of the National Debt. The scheme is dropped, 1807. A Committee of Council for Trade is formed. 1368. France. Calonne informs the Kinj^ of the state of affairs, and proposes sweeping reforms on the lines of Turgot and Necker, such as the revival of provincial assemblies, a land-tax without exemptions, firee trade in corn, abolition of the corv^ and tolls. The King agrees to summon the Notables in 1787. 1369. Austria. The Emperor promulgates a new code of laws. 1370. HoUand. The ' Patriot' Party deprives the stadtholder, William V., of the command of the army. 1786] CULTURE 273 211^. Philosophy. Heider's Ideas for a Philosophy of History hints the development of men from animals, and animals from plants. 21^. History. Eant's Ideas of an Universal History approves the notion of p^ectibility, and regards the human race as exempliiying streams of tendency. 21^. Philology. The Eoyal Asiatic Society is founded, its first Presi- dent being Sir William Jones. 2130, Geography. The Ordnance Survey of England is commenced. 2131. Deaths. Diderot, Johnson. 2132. Austrian Ch. Joseph 11. abolishes all secret societies [1705 except the Freemasons, whose numbers, in consequence, increase ^ very rapidly. 2133. American Ch. Madison's Religious Freedom Act removes all religious tests in Virginia. 2134. Eng. Lit. Cowper's The Task 2135. German Lit. Schiller's Don Carlos. Baron Munchausen's Marvellous Travels and Campaigns in Russia, probably vmtten bv Raspe. 2136. Science. Watt enters into partnership with Boulton and con- structs a double-acting steam-engine. 2137. Philosophy. Kant's Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Ethics declares the Good Will the only virtue. Paley's Moral Philosophy, a system of theological utilitarianism. Jacobi's Letters on Spinoza to Moses Mendelssohn defend the con- ception of * Glaube ' or belief. Joseph Balsamo, Count Cagliostro, settles at Strassburg, where he is patronised by Cardinal Rohan, and founds a lodge of Egyptian masonry. 2138. Social. Cartwright patents a 'power-loom,' which weaves by . machinery and is improved by Johnson, Radclifife, and Horrocks. 2139. Deaths. Choiseul, Mably. 2140. Eng. Ch. Bishop Wilson's Sacra Privata. ri^o^ 2141. German Ch. The Bishops of Mainz, Colore and Trier, >- and the Archbishop of Salzburg, fearing the Nunciature established in Munich, 1785, draw up the Punctation of Ems, which contests Papal autocracy and urges the abolition of nuncios. The scheme, though supported by the Emperor, is opposed h^ the majority of the bishops. 2142. Italian Ch. Ricci, Bishop of Pistoja, holds a diocesan synod, which adopts the Gallican Articles of 1682 and the doctrines of Quesnel, which have been spread in Italy by Tamburini and others. The Pope orders him to wait till a Council of Tuscan bishops meets at Florence. In this Council, Ricci is outvoted. Leopold breaks with Rome, but on leaving Tuscany, 1790, deserts Ricci, who submits. 2143. Eng. Ut. Bums' Poems. 2144. Dutch Lit. Bilderdyck's Elias founds the romantic revival. Danish Lit. Baggesen's Comic Tales. o. 18 274 POLITICS [1786 1371. Asia. Pitt obtains permission for the new Govemor-Greneral, Comwallis, to overrule his Council Fenang is ceded to England by its RajaL 1372. Anierica. An insurrection breaks out in Massachusetts under Shavs, who attempts to prevent the collection of debts. The weakness of the Union is revealed, and Virginia proposes a convention to form a stronger constitution. 1373. En^and. Beaufoy's motion for the repeal of the Test n787 and Corporation Acts is lost. ^ 1374. France. The Notables meet (only 7 out of 144 belonging to the Tiers £tat), and reject the proposals of Calonne, who is succe^ed by Lom^nie de Brienne (Feb.). The Notables are dissolved, but the Farliament of Faris protests against Brienne's measures, demands the convocation of the States-General, and is banished (Aug.). A few weeks later it is recalled, and the King declares the States-General shall meet 1792. 1375. Holland. England and Frussia interfere on behalf of the Frince of Orange, who has been driven out The Frince is restored, and Amsterdam surrenders. 1376. Netherlands. The Emperor declares the Netherlands a province of the Austrian Monarchy, but is forced by opposition, led by Van der Noot, to revoke the Union. 1377. Russia. Catherine visits the Crimea, the poverty of which is partially concealed by Fotemkin. She forms a defensive alliance with the Emperor, and forces Turkey to declare war. 1378. America. A Convention meets at Fhiladelphia, Bhode Island alone being unrenresented. Washington presides, and among the dele- Sites are Franklin, Madison, Edmund Bandolph, Mason, Dickinson, ouvemeur Morris, Sherman, Rufiis King, Hamilton and the Finckneys. A Constitution is formed, providing for a Fresident chosen by electors, a Senate composed of two representatives of each state, a House of Representatives chosen according to population, and a Supreme Court The question of slavery is postponed. The Ordinance of 1787 creates five states out of the territory N.W. of the Ohio, and provides for the creation of others, guarantees equal rights and freedom of religion, and forbids slavery. 1379. Aftica. England obtains Sierra Leone for the settlement of liberated slaves. 1380. En^and. The King loses his reason, and Fitt and Fox r^^gg agree that the Frince of Wales shall be Begent Fox declares ^ that he possesses a right to the post, and therefore ought not to be sub- jected to restrictions. Fitt consents to an impeachment of Warren Hastings, which is chiefly conducted by Burke and Sheridan. After four years, Hastings is acquitted. 1788] CULTURE 276 2145. Science. Herschers first catalogue of Nebulae. Ghladni founds Acoustics by bis experiments on vibrations. Qoethe discovers the intermaxillaiy bone. 2U6. Art Mozart's Figaro. 2147, Law. Bentham writes firagmentary essays on International Law, one of which sketches Apl&i^ of a league for universal peace. 2148, Philology. Sir William Jones declares Sanskrit to be related to European languages. 2149, Geography. John Perthes founds a Geographical Institute at Gotha. 2160. Social. Glarkson's Essay on the Slavery and Commerce of the Human Species denounces the traffic in slaves. 2161. Deaths. Frederick the Great, Mendelssohn. 2162. Eng. Ch. Porteus becomes Archbishop of Canterbury and n 730 leads the Evangelical revivsd within the Church, aided by Hannah ^ More, Cowper, Milner, Scott, Simeon, Wilberforce, and the Clapham sect A selection from Wesley's Sermons is published. 2165. French Ch. The £!dict of Versailles grants religious freedom and Wal civil status to Protestants. 2164* German Lit. Goethe's Iphigenie reveals the influence of his journey to Italy. 2166. Science. Laplace explains the secular acceleration of the moon's mean motion. 2166. Art. Mozart's Jupiter Symphony. Tahna's d^but Ganova's monument to Clement XIV. is finished. Blake illustrates his poems. 2167. Politics. John Adams' Defence of the Constitution of Govern- ment of the United States of America answers Turgot's Letter to Price, which blames the Americans for adopting checks and balances like England. 2168. Economics. Bentham's Defence of Usury. 2169. Philology. Catherine II. orders the composition of an Imperial Dictionary, in which 285 words are translated into 51 European and 149 Asiatic languages. 2160, Sociu. A public Committee for the abolition of Slave Trade is formed in England, nine out of the original twelve members being Quakers. Granville Shai^ and Clarkson are added 1788. 2161. Deaths. Boscovich, Galiani, Gluck, Liguori, Lowth, Wahab. 2162. Scotch Oh. The Pretender dies, and the Episcopal clei]gy Q^gg can henceforth conscientiously recogni^ George ill. ; out Skin- ^ ner^s plea for the repeal of the persecuting laws is defeated by Thurlow. 216S. German Ch. Wollner, Minister of Religion in Prussia, revives the censorship and imposes penalties for heresy in the clergy; but the edict is repealed by FredericK William III., 1797. 18—2 276 POLITICS [1788 1381. France. Brienne fails to overcome the opposition of Parliament, announces a national bankruptcy, and is dismissed (Aug.). Necker is recalled, and the States-General are summoned for May 1, 1789, with a double representation of the Tiers Etat. 1382. Germany. Hertzberg induces England and HoUand to join Prussia in a Triple Alliance to maintain the peace of Europe, more especially to defend Turkey against Joseph and Catherine. 1383. Spain. With the accession of the new king, Charles IV., the reformers lose power, which is grasped by the Queen, Marie Louise, and her favourite Godoy. 1384 Ruasia. Austria and Russia invade Turkey. Suvoroff repulses an attack on the Crimea, and Oczakov is taken by Potemkin; but Joseph is repulsed firom Belffrad. (justavus of Sweden declares war against Russia, and invades Finland. His fleet, however, is defeated, Sweden is invaded by the Danes, and he is persuaded by the Triple Alliance to retire. 1385. Turkey. Ali, an Albanian in the service of the Sultan, seizes the town of Janina and obtains the Pashaliks of Janina, Arta, and Acamania. He subsequently drives the Suliots out of Eipirus, and rules south-west Macedonia and Thessaly. 1386. America. The Constitution is accepted by all the States except Rhode Island and North Carolina, despite the strenuous opposition of Patrick Henry, Samuel Adams, Lee, Mason, Clinton and others, who fear that the liberty of individual States is threatened by the powers granted to the Feoeral Government. 1387. Australia. Captain Philip lands convicts at Botany Bay, but, finding it unsuitable, moves to Sydney. Coal is found and sheep are introduced, and New South Wales is colonised. 1388. England. Pitt moves that the Prince be Regent, without n^og newer to create peers or to grant pensions or places. The King, ^ nowever, recovers. Erslane successfully defends Stockdale, who is charged with libelling the Commons by publishing a defence of Warren Hastings. The Revolution Societv, founded to commemorate the Revolution of 1688, meets in London and congratulates the French National Assembly on the £bJ1 of the Bastille. 1389. France. The States-General meet (May 5). The deputies of the Tiers Etat declare themselves the National Assembly (June 17), and, meeting in the Tennis Court at Versailles, swear to establish a Constitu* tion (June 20). They are ioined by the other Estates ; but Necker is dismissed and troops are collected round Paris. The Bastille is there- fore stormed (July 14) ; Necker is recalled ; Artois, Polignac and other nobles fly to Italy ; Bailly becomes Mayor, and Lafayette commander of a newly-raised National Guard. Feudal privileges, s^dom, corv^, guilds, seigneurial jurisdictions, are abolished (Aug. 4), and a declara- tion of the Rights of Man is published. The Assembly decides that 1789] CULTUBE 277 2164. American Ch. The Presbyterians revise the Westminster Oatechism» and introduce the principles of religious liberty and the equality of all Churches before the law. 2166. ^ Ohuroh Hist Abb^ Gr^oire's Bebirth of the Jews pleads for their emancipation. 2166. Eng. Lit. Walter, a bookseller, founds the Times. 2167. French Lit. Bemaidin de St Pierre's Paul et Virginie. 2168. German Lit. Goethe's Egmont 2169. Science. Lagrange's M^nique Analytique deduces the whole of mechanics from the law of virtual work by the aid of the Calculus of Variations. 2170. FhiloBophy. Kant's Critique of Practical Reason declares God, Freedom, and Immortality moral postulates. Oabanis' Rapports du Physique et du Moral restates the theories of Condillac. 2171. Philology. Person's Letters to Travis prove the spuriousness of the text relating to the three heavenly witnesses, 1 John ▼• 7. 2172. Geography. Banks and Rennell form the African Association. 217S. Social. Clarkson publishes evidence relating to the slave-trade, and wins over Wilberforce. The Committee on Trade and Plantations hold an inquiry, and a Bill to improve the sanitation of the slave-vessels is introduced, but mutilated by tlie peers. 2174* Deaths. Buffon, Charles IIL, Tilangieri, Gainsborough, Hamann. 2175. French Ch. Mirabeau carries a motion that the property n 739 of the Church belongs to the nation. ^ 2176. German Ch. The three ecclesiastical Electors submit, and re- cognize the right of the Pope to send Nuncios. Pius refutes the Articles of Ems. 2177. American Ch. Carroll becomes the first Catholic Bishop in America, which has hitherto been under the Vicar Apostolic of London. A Jesuit College is established at Geoigetown. At this time there are about 30,000 Catholics, mostly in Marjdand and Pennsylvania. 2178. Church Hist. In his communication to the German Church the Pope surrenders the authenticity of the Isidorian Decretals. 2179. Eng. Lit. Blake's Songs of Innocence. White's Natural History of Selbome. Bowles, a forerunner of the romantic movement, publishes Sonnets which influence Coleridge. 2180. French Lit. Barth^lem/s Voyi^e du jeune Anacharsis en Grfece presents the first real living picture of Greek me, and contributes to the growth of classical and republican ideas. Joseph Ch^nier's drama, Charles IX. The Journal des D^bats is founded. 2181. German Lit. Eotzebue's drama, Hatred and Remorse. 2182. Science. Galvani accidentally discovers the \ Galvanic fluid' in a frog's lee and assumes that the electricity exists in the frog. Volta hears of the discovery and declares that the electricity is not in the frog but is produced by metals, acted on by the moisture of the flesh. 278 POLITICS [1789 there shall be only one Chamber in the new Le^slature, and that the King's veto shall oe merely suspensive. Owing in part to the plots of Orl^ns, who covets the tnrone, a large band of women marches to Versailles and compels the return of the Court to Paris (Oct. 6)« Lamarck conveys a message from Mirabeau, urging the Eii^ to escape. Members of the Assembly are forbidden to accept office, as Mirabeau is believed to be striving to enter the Ministry (Nov.). Political clubs spring up, and the second emigration of nobles takes place. The provinces with their institutions are abolished, and France is divided into 80 departments with districts and cantons. 1390. Netherlands. Joseph revokes the Constitution of Hainault and Brabant, which therefore rises in revolt under Van der Noot. The Prince Bishop is expelled from Li^ge, but is restored by Prussia. 1391* Sweden. Gustavus makes the monarchy absolute. 1392. Turkey. Austria and Russia renew me alliance of 1781 for another eight years. Suvoroff and Potemkin win victories, and Loudon takes Bel^rad and Passarowitz. 1393. America. Washington becomes President of the United States, John Adams Vice-President, Jefferson Secretary of State, Hamilton Secretary of the Treasury, and Jay Cihief Justice. The first Tariff Act is introduced, and the City of Washington laid out. Tammany is founded as a benevolent society, but shortly becomes a political organisation. Spain attacks England at Nootka Sound, in Vancouver Island, but in the following yeax retires, owing to the refusal of France to aid, and offers indemnity. 1394. En^and. Fox declares his sympathy with and Burke his r^vgn detestation of the French Revolution. ^ Motions for Parliamentary reform and the repeal of tests are with- drawn without a division. 1395. France. Mirabeau becomes the secret agent of the Crown (May), for which he composes a series of Notes. He &ils to win the confidence of Lafayette or Necker, who retire (Sept A In the discussion as to the duty of France under the Family Com- pact to aid Spain in her quarrel with England in regard to Ifootka Sound, the Assembly prop<^ to take the right of declaring war from the King. Mirabeau obtains a compromise, requiring the consent of the King and the Assembly. Louis is henceforth described as King of the French, and a civil list is allowed him in place of his domains. 1396. Germany. By a treaty with Prussia, Poland agrees to cede Thorn and Danzig in exchange for the retrocession of Austrian Gfalicia (March) ; but the new Emperor, Leopold, makes the Treaty of Reichen- bach, Frederick William of Prussia withdrawing from his patronage of the Belgian rebels and his engagements with Sweden, Poland and 1790] CULTURE 279 Jussieu's Genera Plantanim founds the 'natural system' of classi- fication of plants, i.a, by all observable points, and sketches the cha- racters of ' Families, or Natural Orders.' Herschel constructs a reflector 40 feet long. Lavoisier's Traits ^l^mentaire de Chimie contains a new chemical nomenclature and a list of elements. Fourcroy, Guyton de Morveau, BerthoUet, assist in establishing the system. ^18S. Philology. Sir William Jones translates the Sakuntala of Ealidasa. Reiske's Historical Annotations on Abulfeda. j^l84. PolitiCB. Sieves' pamphlet, Qu'est-ce ^ue le Tiers £tat? main- tains the right of the bourgeois to a share in the government of the country. Price preaches a sermon on the Love of Our Country before the Revolution Society, which sends congratulations to tiie Natiomd Assembly of France. The fall of the Bastille is welcomed in Germany by Elopstock, Stolberg, Kant, Fichte, Schiller, J. Miiller, and other distinguished thinkers. Bentham's Principles of Morals and Legislation develope the prin- ciple of Utility, borrowed from Priestley. Malouet's Considerations sur le Gouvemement qui convient k la France recommends limited monarchv. The Declaration of the Rights of Man, based on Si^yes' Exposition des Droits de THomme, declares men bom free and equal in regard to rights ; that the object of political association is the defence of the Natural Rights of Man, liberty, property, personal safety and resistance to oppression. All citizens are eligible to all posts according to ca- pacity; nobody may be molested for expressing his opinions, even religious, unless he disturbs public order. 2185, Law. Martens' Precis du Droit des Gens Modeme, the first systematic positive and historic treatment of International Law. B186. Death. Holbach. B187. Eng. Ch. Paley's Horae Paulinae. r^^gA SS188. French Ch. Church property is confiscated, and monas- *• teries abolished. The Constitution Civile du Clerg^ abolishes the Con- cordat of 1516, and reduces the Bishops to one for each department. The Bishops are to be chosen by the Parliamentary electors and insti- tuted by uie Metropolitan; the clergy by the electors to communal offices. The Pope's confirmation is dispensed with. The clergy are to take the oath to the Constitution Civile. After long hesitation, the King sanctions the law. Protestants become el^ble for office and receive back the property confiscated by Louis aIV. f^l89, German Ch. At the Imperial Election, the Gravamina against the Roman Church are discusseo. f^l90,^ Church Hist. The Jews are declared free in France and receive civic rights. 280 POLITICS [1790 Turkey. The treaty marks the &ilure of the plan to make Prussia the arbiter of Europe, and Hertzbers is dismissed. 1397. NetherlfuidB. A Kepublic is proclaimed, but the Democrats, or Vonckists, are driven from the count^ by the party of Van der Noot Leopold, who succeeds his brother as Emperor, offers to restore the old Constitution. The offer is rejected ; but the country is reoccupied without a blow. The project of exchanging the Netherlands for Bavaria is formally renounced. 1398. Hungary. The Emperor refuses to grant semi-independence, and marches to Pesth. The Magyars submit and Leopold restores the old Constitution; but a strong Nationalist movement remains, which is fostered by Eazinczy, who edits the first Magvar literary magazine. 1399. Poland. Stanislas is won over by the Reformers and grants a Constitution, drawn up by Eollontai, establishing responsible govern- ment, making the crown hereditary in the house of oaxony after the death of Stanislas, abolishing the liberum veto, allowing religious toleration and taxing the nobuity. The Constitution is acuiowldiged by Prussia and Austria, but not bv Russia. 1400. Russia. Peace is made with Sweden by the Treaty of Verela. 1401. Turkey. Suvoroff takes Ismail. 1402. America. Hamilton reports on the Finances, and carries the full pavment of the 'foreign' and 'domestic' debt, and part of tlie State debts. The fiirst Anti-Slavery petitions are presented ; but no settlement is reached. 1403. Asia. Lord Comwallis enters on the second Mysore War, defeats Tippoo at Seringapatam, 1791, and compels him to cede half his temtory, 1792. 1404. England. Anti-Jacobin riots take place at Birmingham, r^-q, and Priestley's house is destroyed. L*'*'* Burke publicly renounces Fox's friendship. 1405. Ireland. Mitford's Bill removes certain Catholic disabilities. The United Irishmen are formed at Belfast by Wolfe Tone, a Presbyterian, to widen the franchise and open Parliament and office to all. 1406. France. Mirabeau is chosen President of the Assembly, but dies (April). The royal family fly fix)m Paris, but are arrested at Varennes (June). The Jacobins and Orleanists clamour for a republic, and Lafayette loses his influence by firing on the mob. The new (lion- stitution is completed and accepted by the King. Ministers are to be responsible to the L^slative Chamber, which is to be elected by almost universal sufirace. The King's veto only holds good for six months. The country is divided into 80 Departments, with elected Councils, and the Parliaments are replaced by judges locally elected, with a Court of Appeal in Paris. The Constituent Assembly dissolves itself (Sept 30). The Legislative Assembly, from which members of the Constituent are ezcludea, meets (Oct 1). Lafayette ceases to command the National 1791] CULTDRK 281 ^191. German Lit. Ooethe's Tasso. 2192. Rnssian Lit. Derdiavin, the Homer of Catherine, writes an Ode on the taking of Ismail by SuToroff. 2195, Science. Goethe's Metamorphosis of Plants shews the funda- mental unity of floral and foliar parts. All organs are modifications of the leaf, and all |)lant8 modifications of a common type. The discoveiy receives little notice until taught by De GandoUe. 2194. Art. Alison's Essay on Taste declares that beauty is not a quality of things but a product of the association of ideas. Albrechtsberger's Guide to Composition. 2196, FhiloBophy. Eiuit's Critique of Judgment recognises a third department of philosophy, namely the Faculty of Pleasure and Pain (in addition to the Faculty of Ejiowledge and the Will). The d priori principles of the srathetic consciousness are that beauty gives a dis- mter^ted pleasure and a pleasure felt by all, and must ^erefore be regarded as the outcome of universal reason and as transcending the subjective and phenomenal. 2196. Politics. Burke's Reflections on the French Revolution divides the English nation into two parties, and creates an unparalleled excitement throughout Europe. The work vehemently aenounces the attack on uie Church and the Monarchy and the abstract doctrines of the Rights of Man, and foretells the breakdown of the constitutional compromise and the rise of absolutism. Burke, however, ludges the Revolution as a purely political phenomenon, and shews himself altogether blind to the existence of the social and economic problems that underlie it. 2197. Law. Hufeland's Text-book of Naturrecht, influenced by Eant 2198. Qeography. Vancouver explores the N. W. coast of America. 2199. SociaL Raditschef, influenced by Raynal and other F^nch writers, pleads for the emancipation of the serfs in his Journey from St Petersburg to Moscow. Gartwright invents a wool-combing machine. EeUy applies water as the motor-power for machinery in spinning. The guillotine is brought into use. Count Rumford arrest all the beggars in Munich simultaneously. 2200. Deaths. GuUen, Febronius, Franklin, Howard, Adam Smith. 2201. Eng. Oh. Robert Hall becomes pastor of a Baptist con- r^^g^ gre^tion at Cambridge for 15 years and preaches his most >- brimant sermons. 2202, French Ch. Volnej's Ruines des Empires compares the historic results of the chief religions of the world, to the disadvantage of Christianity. 2203, American Ch. The Sulpicians found the first Catholic seminary in the United States. 2204. Eng. Lit Boswell's Life of Johnson. Mrs Inehbald's A Simple Story. 282 POLITICS [1791 Guard. Louis vetoes decrees for the return of the emigrants under pain of confiscation and death, and for the taking the oath to the Constitu- tion Civile hy the clergy ; but the Assembly declares that they are not laws, and that the veto is therefore nulL The Comte d' Artois and other French nobles settle at Coblenz (Julv). The Emperor calls on the Powers to rescue Louis XVL, and persuaaes the King of Prussia to join him in issuing the Declaration of Pilnits for joint action against France, if Europe will cooperate. Pitt refuses to join, and, when Louis accepts the Constitution, Leopold declares that the need for a coalition has ceased. The Oirondins, however, uige war, and the Upg is forced to inform the Emperor and the Archbishop of Trier that if the military force of the emigrants is not disbanded within a month, he will attack (Dec). The Elector orders the cessation of the military preparations, but the emigrants refuse to obey. The Emperor expresses his desire for peace, but declares that he will regard an attack on Trier as a casus belli ; and Gustavus of Sweden offers to lead a crusade. France decrees the annexation of Avignon and the Venaissin. 1407. Germany. The principalities of Anspach and Bayreuth fall to Prussia in accordance with the Gera Bond, 1598. 1408. Turkey. In defiance of the Treaty of Reichenbach, the Sultan is forced to cede the district of Orsowa and part of Croatia to Austria bj the Treaty of Sistowa. Odessa is founded, the commerce of which is almost monoj^lised by the Greeks. Pitt considers but dismisses the idea of supporting Turkey against Russia. 1409. America. The first ten Amendments to the Constitution are added, securing the separation of Church and State, free press and peti- tion, trisd by jury, etc., and declaring that powers not expressly delegated to the Federal Government are reserved to the States. Hamilton imposes an excise on whisky, and founds a National Bank. These extensions of federal power are opposed by Jefferson. The provinces of Upper and Lower Canada are separated, and receive representative institutions. 1410. West IndieB. A Negro insurrection takes place in the French part of San Domingo, and the Commissioner of the French Republic declares the natives free, 1793. 1411. AMoa. Spain is finally expelled firom Oran. 1412. England. Fox's libel Bill allows juries to decide what ry.^ constitutes a libel. L The Society of the Friends of the People is formed to promote Parliamentary Reform. Tom Paine is tried, and defended by Erskine. Pitt refuses to accept Greg's motion for Parliamentary Reform as unseasonable, and a Proclamation ag^unst seditious writings is issued. 1413. France. Three French armies are collected on the frontier. The Emperor therefore makes an offensive and defensive alliance witli 1792] CfULTOBE 283 Wordsworih visits France, and is carried away by enthusiasm for the Revolution, the influence of which also appears in the early works of Southey and Coleridge. B206. Gennan Lit. Ooethe becomes Director of the theatre at Weimar till 1817. 2206. Science. Herschel ceases to believe that all nebulae consist of stars. Rennie sets up in business in London as an engineer, and builds bridges, canals, harbours, breakwaters and lighthouses. 2207. Art. Haydn composes his six first Grand Symphonies for a series of concerts in London. 2208. Politics. Mackintosh, in his Vindiciae Gallicae, Tom Paine, in his Bights of Man, and many others, reply to Burke's attack on the French Bevolution. Burke writes his Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs, and his Letter to a Member of tne National Assembly, in the latter of which he first advocates the intervention of the Oreat Powers in the affairs of France. W. V. Humboldt's Attempt to determine the Limits of the Functions of the State protests against the principle that the securing of the moral well-being of the communitv lies within the snhere of State action. 2209. History. Martens' Becueil des principaux Traits, 1671—1791. 2210. Social. Bentham presents his scheme of a Panopticon prison (i.e. a building every part of which is made visible from a single point by reflectors) to the Government; though empowered to proceed, nothing frurther is done. 221U Deaths. Mirabeau, Mozart, Potemkin, Sender, Wesley* [1792 2212. Scotch Ch. The penal laws against the Scotch episco- palians are rescinded, partly owing to the influence of Horsley. Some disabling clauses, however, are inserted by Thurlow. 2215. French Ch. A law by which priests may be banished on the petition of 20 citizens is rejected by the King. After Aug. 10, tiie non-jurors are ffiven 14 days to leave. The religious orders are dis- solved, and civil marriage and divorce are introduced. 2214. Oennan Ch. Fichte's Critique of all Revelation, the ideas of which he declares to be a development from the philosophy of Kant, rejects doctrinal Christianity. 2216. American Ch. The first Swedenborgian Church is founded at Baltimore. 2216, Eng. Ut. The Libel Act is passed, and is strongly attacked by Robert Hall and others. Hannah More's Village Politics, designed to prevent the spread of revolutionary principles. Bage and Holcroft write didactic novels with a revolutionary tendency. 2217. American Lit. Gobbett's Journal, Peter Porcupine, attacks the American Republic. 284 POLITICS [1792 Prassia, and declares that the security of Europe demands order iu France. The Girondins take office and force the King to declare war against the Emperor (April 20). In an attack on Belgium a panic occurs. Tlie cry of treachery is raised, 20,000 volunt^rs from the departments are collected, and a camp of 80,000 men outside Paris is decreed. The King vetoes the latter measure, dismisses the ministry, and appoints Feuiuants, hut fails to support them. The contingent from Marseilles for the volunteers' camp arrives singing the Mareeil- laise. When war is declared against Prussia (Ju^ 8), Brunswick threatens Paris with destruction if the royal family is harmed. The moh demand the deposition of the King and Danton takes control of Paris. The Swiss guards are massacred (Au^. 10), the King is shut up in the Temple, and a National Convention is summoned to revise the Constitution. Lord Gk)wer, the English ambassador, is at this moment recalled. The capture of Longwy and Verdun by the Prussians (Sept. 2) is followed by tne September massacres of nobles and others. The Convention meets, declares France a Republic, and inaugurates a new Calendar. The tide of success at this point turns. Dumouriez holds Valmy against the Prussians, and Savoy and Nice are annexed. Custine invades the Rhine Provinces, and takes Spires, Worms and Mainz, the Princes fleeing without a blow. Dumounez defeats the Austrians at Jemappes (Nov.), enters Belgium, and opens the Scheldt These victories impel the Assembly to offer aid to all nations revolting against their governments (Nov.). The Jacobins become powerful and demand the King's death (Nov.). Louis' correspondence with Mirabeau is discovered, and serves as a basis for the trial. The last remains of the feudal regime are abolished. The Colonies are granted representation in Parliament. 1414. Sweden. Gustavus IIL is assassinated. 1415. Poland. Catherine invades Poland and is joined by the Patriots, who form the Confederation of Targowicz, and demand the restoration of the old Constitution. The Poles, led b^ Kosciuzko, are defeated, Stanislas is terrified, and the new Constitution is abolished by Russia. Catherine begins to negotiate with Austria and Prussia for a partition. 1416. Spain. Godoy becomes supreme. 1417. Turkey. The Peace of Jassy is made with Russia^ which obtains Oczakov. The Dniester is fixed as the boundary. 1418. England. Pitt issues Exchequer Bilk r^„go Grenville's Alien Act empowers to remove suspected forei^ers, ^ and a Treasonable Correspondence Act is passed. Muir and other republican propagandists are heavily punished. 14 L9. Ireland. AJarmed by the United Irishmen, Pitt frees the Catholics from some penalties, and allows them to vote. 1420. France. The King is executed (Jan. 21), and fbrance declares war against England and Holland. The coalition is joined by Spain, Portugal and Tuscany. Dumouriez is defeated at Neerwinden, and 1793] CULTURE 286 2218. Science. Pinel becomes physician at the asylum of Bic^tre, discuds the theory of possession, dispenses, where possible, with {physical restraint, and introduces humane treatment of the insane, n the same year Tuke applies similar principles in the asylum at York. 2219. Art. Raphael Morghen settles in Florence, and engraves Leon- ardo's Last Supper, and other works. 2220. FbiloBophy. Du^d Stewart's Philosophy of the Human Mind popularises, without adding to, the ideas of Keid. Schulze's Aenesidemus or the fundamental Principles of the Ele- mentary Philosophy of Beinhold, declares it a contradiction to say that categories apply only to phenomena and that things in themselves are causes of impressions, and asserts that criticism ought logically to deny the possibility of things in themselves. 2221. NuznlBinatics. Eckhel's Doctrina Nummorum Veterum. 2^2. Social. Kelly invents the self-acting mule, which is improved by Boberts. Mary Wolstonecraft's Rights of Woman declares the chief end of marriaee to be intellectual companionship, contends for greater free- dom 01 divorce, and recommenas state education. The King of Denmark first forbids the buying, selling or transport of slaves. 2228. Death. Reynolds. 2224. Eng. Ch. Eltanah Winchester, an American Unitarian, r^^g^ founds South Place Chapel, London. ^ 2226. Scotch Ch. Privileges are conceded to the Scotch Catholica 2226. French Ch. Hubert's P^re Duchesne advocates atheism, and with the aid of the Cordeliers Club, Chaumette, Anacharsis Clootz and others, forces the Convention to abolish the Catholic fBiith and to threaten non-juring priests with deatL On Nov. 10th they celebrate the Feast of Reason m the Church of St Eustache. 2227. Italian Lit. Monti's Bassvilliana, an epic, attacks the French Revolution. 2228. Science. Sprengel's Secret of Nature Dispkyed exphuns the fertilisation of plants by insects which carry pollen-dust from flower to flower. In certain cases poUen-dust is carried by the wind. Chappe constructs the aerial telegraph. 2229. Art. The Louvre is transformed into a national museum of art 2280. Philosophy. Kant's Religion within the Limits of Reason declares the religious life of the individual independent of the truth or fsJsehood of historical Christianity. The Decade Philosophique, a review of science and philosophy at home and abroad, is published as the organ of the Ideologues, Say, Gingu^n^, Condorcet, Si^yes, Roederer, Volney, Saint-Lamber^ Cabanis, Garat. Condorcet's Tableau du Progrte de TEsprit Humain surveys the 286 POLITICS [1703 deserts to the Austrians (March). The Committee of Public Safety is formed, the Reign of Terror begins, the Revolutionary Tribunal com- mences. The Girondins fall, and Marat is murdered by Charlotte Corday in revenge for their deatL Robespierre, St Just, Billaud, CoUot, Bar^re, and Couthon become supreme. Toulon, Lyons and La Vend^ rise against the Government. The English troops, under the Duke of York, are repulsed near Dunkirk (Sept), the Austrians are defeated at Wattignies, and Austrians and Prussians are driven back to the Rhine (Oct.). Lyons surrenders, the Vendeans are suppressed, and Toulon is captured by Bonaparte (Dec.). Equal division of real property is introduced. 1421. Poland. Russia and rrussia secretly sign the second Partition, (Jan.). Frederick William occupies the stipulated districts, Danzig, Thorn, with the provinces of Great Poland, Posen, Ealisch, and Gnesen. Russia takes the remainder of Lithuania, and Volhynia and PodoUa, and obtains free entrance for her troops, the conduct of wars and the confirmation of treaties made with foreign powers. At Vienna, Thugut^ the new minister, refuses to accept the treaty. 1422. America. The first Fugitive Slave Act is passed, but proves inopmitive in the North. Washington issues a proclamation of Neutrality on the outbreak of the great war, despite the treaty with Fiance of 1778. In defiance of this. Genet, the French agent, fits out privateers, but, at the request of Washington, is recalled. 1423. Asia. Bengal is assessed for land-tax hj the order of Lord Cornwallis, and the Permanent Settlement comes into operation. Lord Macartney is sent to China to obtain commercial privileges for the i^t India Company, but fails. 1424. ^ England. ^ The Habeas Corpus Act is suspended. The 1^794 Whig party splits into two parts, and Portland, Grenville and ^ Windham enter the Cabinet. Fox and Grey remain with only a handful of supporters. Home Tooke, Hardy and Thelwall are acquitted of treason. 1425. Ireland. Pitt is persuaded by his new Whig aUies to pursue a policy of conciliation, and selects Fitzwilliam, who, however, is for- biaden to expel any officials for misconduct Fitzwilliam gathers that Pitt authorises a complete change of system and justice to the Catholics. Curran begins to take part in the great State Trials. 1426. France. Jourdan defeats the idlies at Fleurus (June), and drives them out of the Netherlands. Pichegru enters Holland. York is beaten at Bois-le-Duc. Howe defeats a French fleet near the mouth of the Channel (June), mt the victory has no decisive results. Hoche defeats a body of Smigr^ at Quiberon Bay (July). Kobespierre crushes Hubert, Chaumette, and Clootz (March), and Danton and Camille Desmoulins (April). Carrier at Nantes and Lebon t 1794] CULTUKK 287 intellectaal development of mankind, and foretells perfectibility and a greatly increased longevity. 22S1. Politics. Godwin's Political Justice, the only attempt by an Englishman during the 18th century at a system based on French Communism, exerts a wide influence, especially over young men. Its principles are continued by Charles Hall and others. Spence edits a Journal, entitled Pigs' Meat, in which he contends for land nationalisation. Mallet du Pan's Consid^ations sur la Revolution Fran^aise. Oentz translates and edits Burke's Reflections on the French Revolution. Anacharsis Clootz proposes that the Convention shall decree the creation of an universal republic. i^S^. Education. The French Assembly decides on a free and com- pulsory elementary education from 6 to 8; but education ceases to be free or comnulsory 1795. fS^S, Philology. Porson becomes Professor of Greek at Cambridge, and edits Euripides and Aeschylus. With GaLsford, Elmsley, Dobree, Blomfield, Monk, he revives English classical scholarship. i^2S4< Agriculture. An Agricultural Board, suggested oy Lord Eames, is founded, with Sir John Sinclair as President, and Arthur Young as Secretaiy. The Board collects statistics and advocates enclosures and the cultivation of potatoes. £^5, SociaL Eli Whitney invents a cotton gin, which increases the pace of cleaning cotton three hundredfold, and facilitates the export of cotton fix>m the Southern states of the American Union. England becomes dependent on foreign com. Slavery is abolished m French possessions. i^ese. Deaths. Mansfield, Robertson, Gilbert White. SSSS7, Eng. Ch. Paley's Evidences of Christianity assume the rj^vg^ existence of a Personal God, and infer the probability of a ^ revelation, the reality of which he proves chiefly by miracles. Though admitting, like Butler, that the evidence is not complete, he considers it sufficient, and declares the discrepancies of the N.T. to be in no way inconsistent with its general inspiration. Paine's Age of Reason atta<^ Christianity and the Old Testament from a Deistic standpoint, declaring the conduct attributed to Jehovah inconsistent with moral ideas. Stonyhurst College is founded. £^8. French Ch. Robespierre carries a decree formally recognizing the existence of a Supreme Being and immortality (May). In June he presides over the Feast of the Supreme Being. £2S9. Eng. Lit. Godwin's Caleb Williams. Gifibrd's Baviad and Maeviad satirise the affectation and sham romanticism of the Delia Cruscans. Mrs Radcliffe's Mysteries of Udolpho. 288 POUTics [1794 at Arras sup^eryise the revolution in the provinces. Eobespierre carries a law by wmch deputies may be tried by an order of the Committee of Public Safety, and no proof of guilt is required. The deputies are frightened, and Robespierre is arrested, with Couthon and St Just, and executed (July 28). The Moderates and Dantonists, Sieves, Tallien, Barras, Boissy d'Anglas, seize power and crush Billaud, CoUot, Bar^, Tinville, and Carrier, abolish tne Commune of Paris, close the Jacobin Club, amnesty the Vend^ans, and recall the Oirondins, expelled from the Assembly in 1793. Paoli appeals to the English fleet to aid him to expel the FrencL The island is taken, and Paoli retires into private life, but England withdraws, 1796. 1427. Poland. Eosciuzko leads a revolt against the Russians, who are expelled from Warsaw. A Prussian army in vain besieges the capital ; but Suvoroff arrives, defeats and captures Eosciuzko, and takes the city. 1428. America. Exasperated by the retention of posts in the North- west, the capture of neutral vessels carrying provisions to French ports, and the search of American vessels for British seamen. Congress lays an embargo on British shipping in American ports for 30 days. To avoid war Jay is sent to England to negotiate a treaty. England promises to evacuate the posts, to appoint commissioners to settle the debts and the North-west Boundary dispute, but yields nothing in regard to neutral trade and impressment Tne 12th article of the treaty opens the British West Indies to American vessels under 70 tons, provided the United States do not export molasses, sugar, coflee, cocoa, and cotton. 1429. West Indies. An English invasion of Ha^i leads to the emanci- pation of the slaves. Toussaint L'Ouverture drives out the British. Guadeloupe, Martinique and Santa Lucia are taken by England from France. Guadeloupe is recaptured. 1430. Africa. England takes the Seychelles from France. 1431. England. A Treason Act declares writing or speaking [^795 against the King's authority treason, and stirring up hatred ^ against the King s person and the Constitution a misoemeanour ; and a Sedition Act rorbids political meetings unless advertised beforehand, and permits two justices to disperse them if they consider them dangerous. 1432. Ireland. Fitzwilliam arrives, but at once dismisses two notorious jobbers. The Irish Chancellor, FitzGibbon, and the victims complain to the King. Fitzwilliam is promptly recalled, and Pitt sends Lord Camden and begins to contemplate a Union. Orange lodges are organised by Protestants, and the United Irishmen take up the cause of the Catholics. 1433. France. The Dauphin dies in the Temnle. Bread riots take place in Paris, and a revolt of the Sections is sup- pressed by Napoleon ^Oct.^. La Vendue and the Chouans of Brittany negotiate with England, which sends ships to Quiberon ; but the expedi- tion fails. 1796] CULTUKB 289 ^240. French Lit Andr^ Chdnier's Poesies, the highest point of the classical influence in French poetry. Xavier de MaLstre's Voyage autour de ma Ghambre. 2^41. Qerman Lit. Schiller edits the Horen, to which Goethe, Herder, Jacobi, Gleim, the Humboldts, Fichte and the Schlegels contribute. Fichte's Vocation of a Scholar. 224^. Spanish Lit. Jovellauos' comedy, El Delincuente honorado. 224s, Art. Flaxman returns to England from seven years' residence in Italy. 2244- Science. Legendre's Elements de Gdomdtrie, widely adopted as a substitute for EucUd. Darwin's Zoonomia declares species are evolved from each other, not separately created. John Hunter's Treatise on the Blood, Inflammation, and Gunshot Wounds. 2245. Philosophy. Fichte's Science of Knowledge adopts the tran- scendental method of Kant, but shews that self-consciousness, the ultimate ground of reality, is not to be regarded as individual. He fails, however, to connect the development of reason with history and nature or to advance beyond a position of ethical solipsism. 2246. Politics. Fichte's Rectification of Public Opinion concerning the French Revolution fully accepts Rousseau's theory of Contract, which he translates into the terms of Kantian ethics. 2247. Philology. Hermann begins to lecture on classical literature at Leipzig. 2248. Education. The Ecole Normale, for the training of teachers, and the ]&x)le Polytechnique for instruction in science are founded at Paris. 2S49. Law. The Prussian Landrecht, a system of State Socialism, chiefly prepared by Carmer, becomes law. 2250, Deaths. Beccaria, Camden, Chdnier, Condorcet, Gibbon, Goldoni, W. Jones, Kaunitz, Lavoisier, Justus Moser, Tiraboschi. 2251, Eng. Ch. Stapleton, late Rector of St Omer, brings the 1-1795 students of St Omer and Douai to England and founds St ^ Edmund's Hall, Ware. 2252. Irish Ch. The Government found the College of Maynooth to prevent priests going to Paris for education and bringing back revo- lutionary ideas. 225S. American Ch. Ballon, an Universalist, maintains that punish- ment is confined to this life and borne by the sinner, and in no way by Christ. 2254. Eng. Lit. Lewis' The Monk carries on the romanticism of Mrs Radcb'ffe and Horace Walpole. Wordsworth and Coleridge meet. 2255. French Lit. Mme. Roland's Memoirs. As a substitute for the Academies, abolished 1793, the Institute is founded by Lakanal, Daunou and Camot, and consists of three G. 19 290 POLITICS [1795 A Constitution is drawn up, creating a Council of Ancients and a Council of 500, in both cases one-third to be replaced yearly, and a Directory of five, chosen by the Ancients from a list drawn up by the 500, one to retire each year. The executive and legislative power are thus separated. Two-thirds of the new Assembly are to be chosen from the present Convention. Camot, Lareveill^re-Lepeaux, Rewbell, Letoumeur, and Barras are chosen Directors. Prussia makes peace at Basle with France, which cedes the con* quered districts on the right bank of the Rhine. Prussia pomises to cede her possessions on the left bank in return for ecclesiastical estates to be secularised in Germany. A line of demarcation secures the neutrality of Northern Germany. Peace is also made with Sweden and some German States. After the Treaty of Basle, England and Austria renew their alliance. France is driven across the Rhine, Pichegru attempting to turn traitor. 1434. Spain. Spain concludes peace with France, ceding Spanish St Domingo. 1435. Holland. Piche^ overruns Holland, captures the Dutch fleet in the Texel, and establishes a Batavian republic. The British evacuate Holland. 1436. Italy. Tuscany makes peace with France. The Austrians are defeated by Sch^rer at Loano. 1437. Poland. The third partition is arranged, and Stanislas abdicates. Russia takes East Poland, and Austria West Galicia. The remainder, with Warsaw, is assigned to Prussia. Austria and Russia secretly sign a declaration by which Austria is to assist Russia, in any war with Turkey, to take the Danubian principalities, and to be compensated by acquisitions in France or Venice. Tne Duke of Courland is compelled to abdicate, and his duchy becomes a Russian province. 1438. America. Jay's treaty is hotly attacked, but is ratified, the Federalists, however, being much weaiened. A treaty between the United States and Spain determines the southern boundary, and secures free navigation of the Mississippi. The French retake Santa Lucia. 1439. AMca. War bein^ declared against the Dutch, the Cape of Good Hope is captured by England. 1440. Asia. Agha Mohammed defeats and exterminates the Zend line and becomes ruler of all Persia, and founds the Eajar dynasty. In 1796 he seizes Ehorasan. 1441. En^and. Lord Malmesbury is sent to Paris to negotiate nngg a peace, asking France to withdraw from the Austrian Nether- '- lands and from Italy. The Directory promptly reftises (Oct.). 1442. Ireland. Wolfe Tone is sent to France by the United Irishmen to urge the Directory to invade Ireland and establish a Republic. Hoche sails from Brest with 20,000, but the fleet is dispersed and only a few vessels reach Bantry Bay, whence they are driven by a storm. 1796] CULTUBE 291 divisions, the Natural Sciences, the Moral and Political Sciences, and the Arts. 2266. German Lit. Goethe's Wilhelm Meister. The Confessions of a Beautiful Soul are modelled on the personality of his early friend, F. V. Elettenberg. 2257, Art. Carstens exhibits his collected pictures in Rome, copied from the antique. Schiller's Letters on Aesthetic Culture, modeUed on the teaching of Eant, declares a sense-impulse and a form-impulse to exist in us, which, working together, give rise to a play-impulse (spiel-trieb), the object of which is living shape, or beauty. 2268, Science, ueoffrey Saint-Hilaire suspects that aU species are variants on a primordial form of life. Goethe reaches a similar con- viction about tne same time. Hutton's Theory of the Earth founds Uniformitarianism, and recog- nizes the activity of heat His ideas are developed in Playfairs Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory, 1802, and extended by the experiments of Sir James Hall, but are attacked by Jameson, a rigid Wemerian. 2269, Politics. Eant's Perpetual Peace hopes for peace by a world republic with a central Diet A somewhat similar scheme is put forward by Gorres, 1797. 2260, Philology. Wolfs Prolegomena to Homer declares part of the poems by the Homeridae, composed without writing, and therefore much changed. He work opens the modem period of classical scholarship. His view is worked out by Lachmann and Hermann. 2261, Education. Lakanal persuades the Convention to create 100 'Ecoles Centrales' for higher education. 2262, Geography. Mungo Park undertakes a journey in West Africa. 2263, History. Dupuis' Origine de tous les Cultes, a mythological analysis of the Gospel and one of the earliest studies in comparative religion. 2264, Social. Some Berkshire Justices of the Peace meet at Speenham- land, declaring their conviction of the necessity of making an allowance out of the rates to every poor family in proportion to its numbers. The ' Speenhamland Act oi Parliament' becomes very widely adopted, and the allowance system goes far to demoralise the working classes. 2266. Death. BoswelL 2266, Eng. Ch. Watson's Apolosy for Christianity, a renly to r^^gg Paine's Age of Reason, defends the moralitv of the Old Testa- *■ ment, but admits the existence of errors and contradictions in reference to matters of fact 2267, IVench Ch. Lareveill^re-Lepeaux inaugurates the Theophilan* throp}r movement, a creed natunJ, primitive and universal, and destined to unite all sects and form an Institut Moral. It is practised by 10 churches in Paris, till forbidden by Napoleon, 1802. 19—2 292 POLITICS [1796 1443. France. Brittany and La Vend^ are pacified by Hoche. Baboeuf's conspiracy, aided by Sylvain Mar^chal and Buonarotti, to restore the constitution of 1793 and destroy the government, is detected. Baboeuf is executed. Prussia agrees to the cession of the left bank of the Rhine to France, in return for ecclesiastical territories on the right bank, which it hopes to secularise. 1444. Germany. Jourdan and Moreau enter Germany, but are forced to re-cross the Rhine. 1445. Italy. Bonaparte receives the command of the Italian army, defeats the Austrians and Sardinians at Montenotte and Dego, compels the King of Sardinia to withdraw from the Coalition and to cede Savoy and Nice. He then enters Milan, expels the Austrians from Lombardy, and besieges Mantua, beating off Austria's relieving armies at Gasti* glione, Bassano, and later at Areola. 1446. Spain. At the instance of Godoy, Spain concludes the Treaty of San Ildefonso with the Directory, fearing English i)reponderance at sea (Aug.), and declares war (Oct.). The English withdraw from Corsica. 1447. Portugal. A secret treaty is made by France and Spain to parti- tion Portugal, which therefore b^ England for aid. Troops are sent and an invasion is prevented. 1448. America. John Adams defeats Jefferson in the Presidential election by three votes, and retains Washington's Hamiltonian advisers, who intrigue against him. 1449. West Indies. England takes Santa Lucia, St Vincent and Grenada. 1450. Asia. England takes Ceylon. 1451. En^and. The Bank of England suspends cash pajonents. [^797 Admiral Jervis defeats the Spanish fleet off Cape St Vincent, ^ Nelson disobeying orders and oashing in (Feb.). Admiral Duncan is sent to blockade the Dutch in the Texel, while Lord Bridport, at Spithead, is to watch the French. The sailors at Spithead mutiny for better pay and treatment (April), and Howe is authorised by the Admiralty to promise them justice. The sailors at the Nore also mutiny, and demand to vote on the management of the ships in battle, and are joined by mutineers in the fleet off the Texel (May). The mutiny is suppressed, and the leaders hanged (June). Duncan defeats the Dutch fleet off Camperdown. 1452. Germany. Frederick William IIL becomes King of Prussia, and determines to remain neutral in the struggle with France. 1453. France. The anti-republican directors, Camot and Barthdlemy, are expelled by Augereau, at the bidding of Bonaparte and the other Directors (Sept.). The elections are annulled in 49 departments^ and the Directors are given absolute power. 1797] CULTURE 293 2268. Eng. Lit Burke's Letter to a Noble Lord replies to the Duke of Bedford's attack on the grant of a pension from the Grown. Ireland's Shakspere forgeries impose on Sheridan and Kemble, but are exposed by Malone. 2269. German Lit. Brockhaus issues the first edition of his Gonver- sationslexikon, or Gyclopsedia. Iffland becomes Director of the National Theatre at Berlin. 2270. Art. Goya's Los Gapriccios, satirising the Govemment, society and religion, are seized by the Inquisition. 2271. Science. Laplace s Exposition du Syst^me du Monde enunciates the Nebular Hypothesis, probably in ignorance of the work of Kant. Jenner inoculates a boy with cow-pox as a preservative against small-poz. 2272. Politics. De Bonald's Pouvoir Politique et Religieux dans la Socidtd Givile bases absolutism on traditionalism, and initiates the speculative reaction in France. Joseph de Maistre's Gonsid^rations sur la France advocate a royalist restoration and denounce the French Revolution as an attack on religion and society. Kant's Metaphysical Foundations of the Theory of Right founds the State on the principle of contract, and opposes absolutism and extreme centralisation. Fichte's Naturrecht, influenced by Kant, contends that the State exists only to carry out the law. Burke's Letters on a Regicide Peace subjects the different periods and parties of the Revolution to indiscriminate abuse. ^ 227S. Law. Gambac^r^s issues a Projet de Gode Givil, the basis of Napoleon's Gode. With Merlin de Douay he is commissioned to revise all existing laws in France, and publishes the Gode Francais, 1797. 2274. Deaths. Bums, Gatherine of Russia, Raynal, Reio. 2275. Eng. Ch. Wilberforce's Practical View of the prevailing r j»g„ religious System exercises great influence among Evangelicals. ^ The Methodist New Connexion leave the Wesleyans owing to a dispute in regard to the position of the laity and the relation to the Ghurch of England. 2276. Eng. Lit Gifford, Ganning, Hookham Frere and other con- servatives edit the Anti-Jacobin. The works of Kotzebue invade the London stage, but are parodied by Ganning and Frere in The Rovers. 2277. French Lit. Chateaubriand's Essai sur les Revolutions attacks the theory of perfectibility. 2278. German Lit Goethe's Hermann und Dorothea. Augustus Schlegel and Tieck's translation of Shakspere. Wackenroder's Outpourings of a Monk quickens the reaction to romanticism, and the study of mediaeval art. Holderlin's Hyperion. 294 POLITICS [1797 1454. Italy. Napoleon defeats a fourth relieving army at Bivoli (Jan.), takes Mantua (Feb.), and crosses the Alps to invade Austria. Venice rises behind him, and, fearing to be cut off, he signs the Preliminaries of Leoben, by which Austria cedes the Netherlands and part of Lombardy to Fiance, and recognises the Oisalpine Republic to be formed. Austria is to be indemnified at the expense of Venice (April). Napoleon at once declares war on Venice, abolishes the Constitution, occupies the Ionian Islands (which are taken by Turkey, 1799). The Cisalpine Republic is proclaimed, consisting of Milan, Modena^ Ferrara, Bologna and the Romagna^ and (sfenoa is transformed into the Ligurian Republic. The Pope surrenders Avignon and the Romagna. Hoche advances into Germany, and Mainz is taken. 1455. Austria. The Peace of Campo Formia is signed (Oct.). Austria cedes Belgium to France, and receives Venetia, as mr as the Adige, with Istria ana Dalmatia. France retains the Ionian Islands. By secret articles, Austria promises to cede the left bank of the Rhine from Basle to Andemach, including Mainz, to France, the princes who suffer by the cession to receive indemnification in Germany. France is to help Austria obtain Salzburg and part of Bavaria. A Congress meets at Rastadt to arrange peace with the Empire. 1456. America. The American Minister in Paris is expelled, and a Commission sent to preserve peace is also ejected. 1457. West Indies. England takes Trinidad from Spain. 1458. Bn^and. A tax of 10 per cent, is imposed on incomes niroQ over £200. L^'^^ Fox's name is struck off the list of Privy CounciDors, and Fox and his friends temporarily withdraw from Parliament. 1459. Ireland. The United Irishmen prepare an insurrection ; but the plot is betrayed, and Lord Edward Fitzgerald is arrested. The peasants rise in Wexford and massacre the Protestants, but are defeated at Vinegar Hill, near Wexford, by Lake (June). 1,100 French troops land (Aug.), but are forced to surrender (Sept.). Lord Comwallis succeeds Camden as Lord Lieutenant, and attempts to suppress the cruelty. Wolfe Tone is taken and commits suicide. 1460. France. Jourdain introduces conscription. 1461. Africa. The Directory urges Bonaparte to attack England ; but he prefers to go to Egypt, as a starting-point for the creation of an Eastern Empire and an attack on the English in India, with the aid of Tippoo. He seizes Malta from the Knights of St John, lands in ^gypt, and defeats the Mamelukes at the Battle of the P3rramid8 (, and the Ministry of All the r^gg^ Talents is formed under Grenville. ^ 1527. Italy. Ferdinand is ejected by a French army, and Joseph Bonaj)arte becomes King of Naples, the English fleet holding Sicily for Ferdinand (March^. 1528. Austria. Francis is compelled to abandon the title of Holy Roman Emperor. The Holy Roman Empire comes to an end 1806] CULTURE 307 Brown's Relation of Cause and Effect declares the relation to be one of antecedence and sequence, but admits an intuitive belief in the permanence and universality of the causal connection* 2S62. Economics. Lauderdale's Nature and Origin of Public Wealth attacks Smith's account of value, and condemns the importance attached to saving. 2363, Law. The Code Civil, inspired by Bentham's Theorv of Legisla- tion, b^;un by the Constituent and Convention, is issued. Compiled chieflv by Tronchet, Portalis, Gambac^r^, and, to some degree, by Napoleon himself, bom Roman law, royal ordinances, customs, the teaching of the great French jurists, and the legislation of the Revolu- tionary period, the Code is rapidly adopted by many countries in Europe and America. 2364. Deaths. Alexander Hamilton, Eant, Necker, Priestley. 2365. Eng. Lit Scott's Lay of the Last Minstrel r^^^ Gary translates Dante's Inferno. ^ 2366. Church Hist. The Pope is allowed by Napoleon to return to Italy ; but on being crowned. Napoleon refuses to respect the Concordat concluded with the Cisalpine Republic 1803, and occupies Ancona on the Pope's refusal to divorce his brother Jerome. 2367. nench Lit. Chateaubriand's Ren^ may be said to inaugurate the period of romanticism in French literature. 2368. Danish Lit. Ohlenschlager meets Steffens, fresh from the influence of Schelling, bums his old verses, and founds romanticism by his tragedy of Hakon Jarl. 2369. i&t. David's Coronation of Napoleon. Paganini b^pns his violin tours. Pye, 'the &ther of landscape engraving,' begins to engrave for Turner. 2370. Science. Monde's Application de I'Alg^bre \ la G^omdtrie helps to create modern synthetic geometry. Alexander Humboldt and Bonpland's Essai sur la O^graphie des Plantes. 2371. Philology. Colebrooke's Essay on the Vedas, the first critical examination to which thev are subjected, introduces the period of the scientific study of oriental literatures and religions. 2372. Nmnismatics. Lord LiverpooFs Coins of the Realm. 2373. Law. Zacharise's Key to Law attempts to found on the rules of grammar and logic a system of interpretation applicable to all systems of law. 2374. Deaths. Greuze, Schiller. 2375. French Ch. Napoleon convokes a Sanhedrim, to which r]^gQ5 he puts (j^uestions relative to military service and other duties of ^ citizenship, and establishes a consistorial organisation for the Jews of Prance. The State commences to pay the Rabbis, 1831. 20—2 308 POLITICS [1806 1529. Germany. Napoleon unites Bavaria, Wiirtemburff, Mainz, Baden and eight lesser principalities, into the Confederation of the Rhine, under his patronage and control, with Dalberg as Prince-Primate (July). In the next three years, 16 other members join. The German Knights are abolished, and their territories annexed to the larger states. Serfdom and other feudal abuses are suppressed. Napoleon forms Berg (taken from Bavaria) and Cleves into the Grand I)uch^ of Bers, wmch he gives to his brother-in-law Murat. Prussia is compMelled by Napoleon to definitely accept Hanover, in consequence of which England declares war (April). Napoleon next offers to restore Hanover to England, and war is therefore declared by Prussia (Oct). A new coalition is formed by England, Prussia, Russia and Saxony ; but the Prussian armies under Hohenlohe and Brunswick are destroyed at Jena and Auerstadt (Oct. 14), and Berlin is occupied. Hesse-Cassel and Brunswick are formed into the kingdom of WestpmJia. Saxony enters the Confederation of the Rhine, promises 20,000 men to Napoleon, and obtains the royal title. The Berlin Decrees close all European ports under Napoleon's influence against English commerce. All British ports are declared in a state of blockade, and all goods coming from England or her colonies are to be destroyed. 1530. Holland. The Grand Pensionary Schimmelpenninck is deposed, and Louis Bonaparte and Hortense Beauhamais are crowned King and Queen. 1531. Deximark. Holstein is taken. 1532. Turkey. The Servians revolt under Kara George, owing to the refusal of the Sultan to garrison the forts with native troops. France conquers the republic of Ragusa. 1533. America. Miranda fails to raise a revolt in Venezuela. Popham takes Buenos Ayres, but is quickly expelled by the Spaniiurds and censured. A further expedition is sent to attack C^li. 1534. Asia. Banjit Sin^h, ruler of the Sikhs, makes a treaty with the English, and peace is maintained till his death, 1839. 1535. England. The first series of Orders in Council is issued rioA» (Jan.). P®^ The King expels Grenville for not promising never to propose con- cessions to the Catholics. Portland succeeds, with Canning as Foreign Secretary. Cardinal Henry of York, the last male in the direct line of the Stuarts, dies. 1536. Gerxnany. Schamhorst reforms the Prussian Army, and Stein's Emancipating Edict, based on the report of a commission appointed by Hardenberg; declares serfs free after 1810, establishes free trade in land, and opens all occupations to all classes. 1537. France. Frederick WiUiam renews the struggle with Russian aid, but is defeated at Eylau (Feb. 8). By the Treat3r of Bartenstein, Russia, Prussia and Sweden agree to carry on the war till a satisfactory 1807] CULTURE 309 1^6. Oerxnan Ch. De Wette's Contributions to an Introduction to the Old Testament declares Deuteronomy to be a late priestly summary of law, and Chronicles a late priestly recast of early history. The other books of the Old Testament are successively investigated, and the legendary character of most of the miraculous narratives is asserted. Stolberg^s Church History, a Catholic counterpart to the work of Milner, presents an apologia for the Catholic Church. 2S77. Amatic Ch. Buclmnan, a Bengal chaplain, urses an Ecclesias- tical Establishment for India. The plan is supported by Lord Teign- mouth and other Evangelicals in England, but is attacked by most Anglo-Indians. £57^. Eng. Lit Mrs Hutchinson's Memoirs of the Great Civil War are published. 2S79. German Lit. Amim's and Brentano's The BoVs Wonder-horn, a collection of popular songs, begins the second or mediaevalist genera- tion of romantics. Amdt's Spirit of the Age attacks Napoleon and the French influence, and attempts to create the spirit of nationality. 2380. Science. Latreille's Uenera Crustaceorum et Insectorum. Davy discovers potassium and sodium by electrolysis. Poisson discusses the question of the stability of the planetary orbits. f^SSl. Art. Bell's Anatomy and Philosophv of Expression as connected with the Fine Arts investigates the relations oetween feeling and muscular movements, and recommends the artist to keep close to reality instead of seeking ideals in his own mind. 1^2, Philology. Adelung's Mithridates, a history of languages and dialects. 2S8S. History. Lysons' Magna Britannia. 2884. Education. Herbart, who has had practical experience of teaching, introduces Psychology into the theory of Education, em- phasises ' apperception/ or the combination of perception with memory, and points out how education should make for moral ends. 2886. Social. Hauy founds an Institute for teaching the blind by means of touch. 2886. Deaths. Fox, Princess Oallitzin. 2887. Eng. Ch. Wilberforce, Thornton, Sir Jam^ Stephen, r^gQ^ Lord Teimmouth, Granville Sharp and other Evangelicals gather ■- round John Venn, Rector of Clapham, and form the daj^am Sect. 2388. German Ch. Schleiermacher maintains that the First Epistle to Timothy was not written by Paul 2389. American Ch. The first Conference is held of the Evangelical Association, founded by Jacob Albright 2390. Asiatic Ch. The organisation of Thugs, a society for the com- mission of murders, becomes known. 310 POLITICS [1807 arrangement is made (April). The Russians and Prussians, however, are defeated at Friedland (June 14), and Napoleon and the Tsar meet at Tilsit, where a treaty is signed (July). Napoleon forms West Prussia into a kingdom, Westpnalia, for his brother Jerome, and grants Prussian Poland as the ' Grand Duchy of Warsaw ' to the King of Saxony. East Frisia is given to Holland. The Confederation of the Rhine is to include all German States but Austria and Prussia. Prussia is forced to support French garrisons. Russia cedes the Ionian Islands and part of Dalmatia, and, by secret clauses, accepts the blockade and is to be allowed to conquer Finland from Sweden and is allowed to try and obtain Moldavia and Wallachia from Turkey. Russia declares war on England (Nov.), which retaliates by a second series of Orders in Council, deoaring all ports of France and ner allies in a state of blockade, and vessels prize unless they touch at a British port (Nov.). To this Napoleon replies by the Milan Decree, declaring all neutral vessels liable to seizure if they touch at a British port (Dec.). The Tribunate is suppressed. 1538. ^ Denmark. Canning learns that Nanoleon is about to seize the Danish fleet, and use it against England. He therefore bombards Copenhagen, seizes the fleet, and takes Heligoland (Sept.). 1539. Portngal. Napoleon agrees with Spam to partition Portugal, which alone refuses the Continental System. Junot invades Portugal, and occupies Lisbon, the royal family, on the advice of England, escaping to Brazil (Nov.y 1540. iuaerioa. Burr, wno has planned an Empire in Texas or Mexico, is tried for treason, but acquitted by Marshall. The American frigate, Chesapeake, is fired on and boarded by an English ship. Jefierson therefore lavs an embargo on all vessels in American ports. Napoleon retaliates by the Bayonne Decree, 1808. Whitelocke fails to recover Buenos Ayres. 1541. Africa. Sierra Leone and (Gambia are organised as English Crown Colonies. 1542. France. Napoleon and Alexander meet at Erfurt (Oct.), hqq^ and Napoleon confirms the promise of Moldavia and Wallachia. ■- Alexanaer promises aid against Austria, in the event of war. After the conference. Napoleon hurries off to Spain. 1543. Italy- French troops occupy &ome, the Pope having refused to recognise the King of Naples ana the French bishops, and to close his ports to England. 1544. Riusia. Speranski, a Liberal, becomes supreme. Russia invades Finland, at this time a possession of Sweden. An English army is sent to Stockholm, but achieves nothing. 1545. Spain. A mob rises against Godov, and Charles abdicates in favour of his son, Ferdinand Vil., but quickly withdraws his abdication. Father and son api)eal to Napoleon, who forces both to abdicate. Napoleon appoints ma brother Joseph king, and sends Murat to succeed him at Naples. A French army, however, under Dupont, is forced to 1808] CULTURE 311 i^91. Eng. Ut. Wordsworth's Ode on the Intimations of Immortality. Moore's Irish Melodies. Charles and Mary Lamb's Tales from Shakespeare. Crabbe's Parish Register. i^S9!S. French Lit. Mme de Stael's Gorinne. id393. German Ut. Hagen edits the first correct text of the Nibel- ungen Lied. £394. Art. Pnid'hon's Justice and Vengeance Fnrsning Grime. Tumer^s Liber Studiomm. M^hul's Joseph. £395, Science. Fulton builds a steamboat, the Clermont, in which he sails up the Hudson. Sommering constructs an electric telegraph by means of the Voltaic pile. £396. Philosophy. Fries' New Critique of Reason developes the ideas of Eant, and insists on psychology as the basis of all metaphysics. HegeFs Phenomenology of Spirit finally parts from Schelling by Tindicating the power of consciousness and reflection to rise to the absolute standpoint. The conditions through which the individual and humanity pass before they arrive at absolute knowledge are traced by means of a dialectic, borrowed in part from Fichte. £397. History. Wilkens History of the Crusades. Sismondi's History of the Italian Republics in the Middle Age.^ £398. Social. The slave trade is forbidden in English dominions, largely owing to the Clapham Sect, aided by Brougham, Wilberforce, Clarkson, Z^hary MacauJay. £399. Death. Paoli. £400. Oermon Ch. Sulpiz Boisserto begins to agitate for the n308 completion of Cologne Cathedral, and excit^ interest in mediaeval ^ art £401. Spanish Ch. Napoleon abolishes the Inquisition, suppresses most of the monasteries and forces the clergy to profess Gallican principles. £40£. Italian Ch. Napoleon abolishes the Inquisition. £403. Eng. Lit. The Quarterly Review is founded by Scott, Lockhart, Gifford, Southey and other Tories, in order to counteract the Whiggism of the Edinburgh Review. Leigh Hunt edits the Examiner, an organ of the Opposition, and is imprisoned for a 'libel' on the Prince Regent, 1811. Scott's Marmion. Sidney Smith's Peter Plymley's Letters attack the disabilities imposed on Catholics, and exert a very wide influence throughout the country. Liunb's Specimens of the English Dramatists first interpret the Elizabethans. Crabb Robinson is sent by the ' Times' to the Peninsular Campaign as Special Correspondent. £404. German Lit Goethe's Faust, part I. 812 POLITIGS [1808 capitulate at Baylen (July). Joseph flies from Madrid, and the army retreats behind the Ebro. Napoleon enters Spain, and retakes Madrid (Dec.). Sir John Moore, who has advanced towards Burgos to aid the Spaniards, learns that Napoleon has joined Soult and is marching against him, and in consequence retreats. 1&46. Portugal. On the news of the rising in Sjtain, the Portuguese revolt and appeal to England for aid. WeUesley is sent to Fortu^, and defeats Junot at Vimiera (Auff. 21), but is superseded. By the Oonvention of Gintra, Junot is allowed to return with his army to France. 1547. Oermany. Stein reorganises the Prussian municipalities. Napoleon is compelled by the Spanish war to recall his army of occupation, and therefore forces Prussia to dismiss Stein, to limit its army to 42,000, and to promise 16,000 men in the event of a war with Austria (Sept). The Tugendbund is instituted, but, despite its undertaking to avoid politics, is oisapproved by Stein, and dissolved 1809. 1548. America. The importation of slaves into the United States is prohibited. 1549. En^and. Burdett's motion for reform (the first since nAAQ 1797), is lost LA»u» Gastlereagh forms a coalition with Austria (April), and sends an expedition to take Antwerp. Flushing is taken, but disputes arise, and fever ravages the army left in the Isle of Walcheren. Canning, Gastlereagh and Portland resign, and Perceval becomes Prime Minister. 1550. Italy. Napoleon annexes the Papal States. The Pope refuses to recognise the annexation, excommunicates its author, and is imprisoned in Savona. 1551. Austria. Napoleon is recalled irom Spain by the news that Austria has declarea war on Bavaria, and that the l^rrolese peasants, under Hofer, have risen (May). Russia declares war a^nst Austria. Napoleon fails to cross the Danube at Aspem (May), but crosses by night on rafts and defeats the Austrians at Wagram (July 5 — 6). The Treaty of Vienna gives Napoleon the Illyrian Provinces, cedes the Tyrol and Salzburg to Bavaria, West Glalicia and Gracow to the Duchy of Warsaw, East Galicia to Russia and Bohemia, and the possessions in Lusatia to Saxony (Oct). Stadion and toe Archduke Charles retire, and Mettemich becomes Chancellor. 1552. Portugal. Soult overtakes Moore's armv, for which the transports have not arrived, at Corunna, but is defeated (Jan. 16). Moore is killed, but his army is safely removed. Wellesley is restored to command, and defeats Soult at Oporto and Victor at Talavera (July). The Spanish army, however, gives no aid, and Wellesley is obUged to fall back. 1809] CULTURE 313 24O6. Science. Malus diacoyeis the polarisation of light bjr reflection. Dalton explains the law of constant, definite and multiple propor- tions, and weighs the elements. The atomic theory is accepted by French chemists, but is rejected by Davy. Guyier and Brongniart publish their inyestigations on the basin of the Seine, and found stratigraphical geology. Gay-Lussac discoyers the laws of the combinations of gases by yolume. Wilson's American Ornithology. 2Ji06, PhiloBophy. James Mill makes the acquaintance of Bentham, of whom he becomes an interpreter. 2J^. Politics. Fourier's Th^rie des Quatre Mouyements adyocates the remoyal of restraints and the creation of communities or Phalanges. Fichte's Addresses to the Gferman Nation lay stress on Education, and broach the idea of national unity under Prussian headship. 2Ji08, EducatioxL The Royal Lancastrian Institution for promoting the education of the Poor, afterwards the British and Foreign School Society, is formed. Napoleon institutes the Uniyersity of France. 2Ji09. Philology. F. Schlegel's Language and Wisdom of the Indians suggests the relationship of Sanskrit with European languages. 2410. Law. Eichhom's History of German Law and Institutions. 2411. SooiaL SiomiUy agitates for the reduction of the list of capital offences. 2412. Deaths. Florida Blanca, Person. 241s, French Ch. The Pope refuses institution to Napoleon's n 399 bishops. ^ 2414. Italian Oh. The French Concordat is extended to Italy. 2415, Oerman Ch. Tschokke's Hours of Meditation reyiye Eyan- gelicalism in Oermany. 2J^6, American Ch. Elizabeth Seton (conyerted to Catholicism during a tour in Italy, 1804) founds the Sisters of Charity of St Joseph. 2417. Eng. Lit. Bmn's English Bards and Scotch Reyiewers replies to an attack in the Edinburgh Reyiew on his Hours of Idleness. Coleridge writes The Friend. Hannah More's Coelebs in Search of a Wife, a treatise on the education of young women* Gunpbell's Gfertrude of Wyoming. 2418. French Lit. Chateaubriand's Les Martyrs marks the beginning of the historical noyel. 2419. Oerman Lit. Goethe's Electiye Affinities. August Schlegel's Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature intro- duce modem principles of literary criticism. 2420. Russian Lit. Eriloff's Fables. 2421. American Lit. Washington Irying's Knickerbocker's History of New York. 314 POLITICS [1809 1553. Sweden. Finland and part of West Bothnia are surrendered to Russia, Finland being guaranteed a separate Diet and army. Charles recognises Bemadotte as his heir. 1554. Rosaia. Russia be^ns a war for the conquest of Wallachia and Moldavia (April), and gains several victories. 1555. America. The embargo is removed, except in regard to France and England, fix)m which countries no goods are to be imported. An attempted revolt in Mexico is supi)res8ed. 1556. West Indies. England takes Martinique and Guadeloupe. [1810 1557. England. Grattan's motion for the relief of Catholics is rejected. Burdett is sent to the Tower by the House of Commons for contempt, and riots take place. The King loses his reason, which he never recovers. Nathan Meyer Rothschild, of Frankfurt, assists the English Govern- ment with a loan, and founds the world-wide influence of ms house. 1558. France. Napoleon, who has divorced Josephine, 1809, mairies Marie Louise, daughter of the Emperor of Austria. 13 out of 26 Cardinals in Paris absent themselves from the religious ceremony. Napoleon annexes the Valais. 1559. Holland. Louis Bonaparte resigns, refusing to ruin the countiy bv enforcing the Continental System, and Holland is incorporated with fiance, on the ground that it is ' the alluvial deposit of French rivers.' 1560. Germany. The coast of North Germany, including Hambura and most of the Hanse Towns and the Duchv of Oldenburg, is annexed, and the Elbe and Weser are closed gainst &igland« Haidenbe^ founds a National Bank, secularises Church lands, and reforms taxation. 1561. Austria. Hofer is captured and shot at Mantua. 1562. Spain. The French troops overrun the Peninsula; but the attempt to capture Cadiz, whither the Cortes are summoned, fails. 1563. Portugal. Mass^na captures Ciudad Rodrigo (July), but is defeated by Wellington at Busaco (Sept.). Wellington entrenches him- self for the winter behind lines at Torres Vedras, extending from the Tagus to the sea, which Mass^na does not attempt to force. By the mediation of Russia^ the Treaty of raris is concluded with France. 1564. Sweden. Sweden joins the Continental System, and obtains the restoration of Swedish Pomerania (Jan.). In the autumn, Sweden declares war against England. 1565. Russia. Angered by the ejection of his kinsman, the Duke of Oldenburg, by the cession of Galicia to the Duch^ of Warsaw, and by tiie Austnan marriage, Alexander deserts the Continental System. 1810] CfULTURE SI 5 24^2. Science. Gauss' Theoria Motns Gorporom Gaelestium improyes Eractical astronomy, and introduces the principle of curvilinear tnangu- ition. Maclure's Geological Survey of the United States. Camot's Defense des Places Fortes. £4^3. Philosophy. Oken's Text-book of the Philosophy of Nature declares the classes of animals a representation of the sense-organs, and must be arranged in accordance with them. £4£4. Politics. Adam Mtiller's Art of Politics, influenced by Burke, violently attacks the ideas of the French Revolution, declares the State organic, and exalts the position of the executive. De Maistre's Principe G^n^rateur des Constitutions Politiques declares that all political institutions are divine. The rights of the ruler and aristocracy have no known author ; those of the people are concessions from the other classes. No nation therefore can obtain liberty if it does not possess it. £4^> Economics. Kicardo denounces the over-issue of paper-money in his High Price of Bullion. £4^6, Social. Restrictions on the English cloth trade are removed, as the manufacture is now carried on chiefly under the factory system and trade-marks have become a guarantee. 24^7. Death. Johannes v. Miiller. £4£8, Eng. Ch. Bishop Milner's Elucidation of the Veto opposes r^g^Q the claim of the Government to exercise a veto on the ap- ^ pointment of Catholic Bishops, a claim approved of by Butler and other Catholics. 24^9, Oermaa Ch. Paulus ofi'ers natural explanations of the miracles. 2450. Swiss Ch. The members of Zinzendorfs circle in Geneva form a Soci^t^ des Amis and b^n a revival of Protestantism. C^sar Malan, FrMdric Monod and Haldane join the movement and preach Justification by Faith. The revivalists are attacked by the Calvinist clergy, and the Church of Le T^oignage is founded 1820. 2451. American Ch. The ' Cumberiand Presbytery* leaves the Presby- terian Church, owing to its rejection of the Calvinist view of reprobation. 2452. French Lit. Mme de Stael's L'Allemagne introduces the know- ledge of German philosophv and literature. 24^3, Oerman Lit. Perthes edits the Vaterlandisches Museum, to which almost every distinguished writer and thinker in Germany contributes. 24^4^ Swedish Lit. Atterboom founds the Phosphorus to introduce romanticism and combat foreign influences. £43S. Russian Lit. Jukovski introduces romanticism in his ballad Ludmila. 24^^' Art Overbeck settles in Home, is joined by Cornelius, Schadow and Veit, and later by Schnorr, Fuhrich and Steinle, and revives Catholic art. The painters are named ' Nazarenes.' 816 FOUTics [1810 On the suggestion of Speranski, the Council of State is reformed, and is divided into the three departments of Legislation, Finance and Church and Civil Administration, which examine ministerial projects of laws. Speranski begins to be fiercely attacked, and falls, 1812. 1566. America. Napoleon's Rambouillet decree orders the sale of ail American vessels that have been seized for violating the French decrees. Madison now declares that if England or France revoke its decrees, the United States will prohibit trade with the other. The French decrees are accordingly revoked, and a non-importation act is enforced against England. Harrison crushes Tecumseh's confederation of tribes on the Tippe- canoe River. Mexico, Argentina, Chili and Upper Peru refuse to acknowledge Joseph Bonaparte. Miranda proclaims a Kepublic in Venezuela and New Granada or Columbia. He aims at a federation of the South American Colonies, but jealousies arise, and he capitulates, 1812, and dies in prison. 1567. AMca. England takes Mauritius and the lie ae Bourbon. 1568. England. The Prince of Wales becomes Regent by a Bill r||),| modelled on that of 1788. L*^ 1569. France. A son is bom to Napoleon, and receives the title of King of Rome. 1570. Spain. Wellington defeats Mass^na at Fuentes d'Onoro and takes Almeida. Beresford defeats Soult, who is hastening to the rdief of Badajos, at Albuera (May 16), but fails to take Badajos. 1571. Italy. Lord William Bentinck, British Envoy Extraordinary and Commander, rules Sicily. 1572. Sweden. The Continental System ceases to be strictly observed. 1573. Oermany. Prussia negotiates with Napoleon for a reduction of her contribution and the removal of the restriction of her army to 42,000 men. Hardenbeig creates peasant proprietorship in Prussia, giving the peasants absolute possession of two-tnirds of their holdings, the remain- ing third passing to the lord as compensation. Representative assemblies come into existence for a few years. 1574. Austria. After fifty years preparation, the Civil Code comes into force throughout the Empire, except m Hungary. 1575. Rnssia. Earamsin's Memoir on Old and New Russia protests against any deviation from the traditional autocratic system. 1576. Turkey. The Russians take Belgrade; and a Turkish army which crosses the Danube is made captive. 1577. America. Paraguay declares its independence of Spain. An engagement takes place between an American and a British ship. 1811] CULTURE 317 2457. Science. Davy discovers that chlorine is a simple body. Bobeit Brown applies the natural system of the Jussieus to his specimens collected in Van Diemen's Land and New Holland. Goethe's Theory of Colours asserts that yellow is light seen through a thickened medium, blue is darkness seen through an illuminated medium. Berzelius investigates the proportions and weights of atoms. Gall and Spurzheim declare psychology a branch of biology, and assign definite functions to definite organs of the brain. The doctrines of phrenology are attacked by Flourens, Majendie, Wagner and other physiologists. Hahnemann's Organon of Therapeutics founds Homoeonathy. 2458. Fhiloaophy. Eoyer-Collard becomes Professor of rhilosophy at the Sorbonne, and introduces the ideas of Reid into France. 2489. Politics. Stahl's Philosophy of Law from a historical standpoint makes the State the picture of the absolute life or God. 2440, Philology. Greuzer s Symbolism of the Ancients pronounces classical myths to be borrowed from Egypt and India. Sylvestre de Sacy's Arabic Grammar. 2441> Education. Berlin University is founded on the plans of Wolf, Fichte, Schleiermacher and Wilhelm v. Humboldt. W. V. Humboldt, Prussian Minister of Education, introduces a matriculation before entering the university and an examination of candidates for teaching, and undertakes a reform of the Gynmasien, which is continued by Schulze. 2442. Geography. Maltebrun's G^graphie Universelle. 244s. Deaths. Cavendish, Queen Louisa of Prussia. 2444. Eng. Ch. The Welsh Calvinistic Methodists leave the rion Church. L^^^^ 244^. French Ch. Napoleon calls a Council in Paris to sanction a project for the institution of Bishops. Most of the members, yielding to intimidation or promises, approve the project, subject to the Pope's approval The Pope approves, with a few trifling restrictions; but Napoleon refrises the Papal brief and dissolves the Council 244'^' American Ch. Hobart becomes Bishop of New York, and strengthens the Episcopal Church by his loyalty to the Eepublic. 244*^, Eng. Lit. Jane Austen's Sense and Sensibility. Coleridge's Lectures on Shakespeare and Hazlitt's Characters of Shakespeare introduce the aesthetic study of the dramas. 2448, Norwegian Lit. Christiania University is founded, and stimu- lates the growth of a national literature. 2449. German Lit. Goethe's autobiographical Truth and Poetry. Fouqud's Undine. 318 POLITICS [1811 1578. AMoa. Mehemet AU, Pasha of Egypt, destroys the Mamelukes. 1579. Asia. Lord Minto takes Java, of which Stamrord Raffles becomes Governor. 1580. En^and. Grattan carries the second reading of a Bill m3]^2 for Catholic relief; but admission to Parliament is lost in Com- ■- mittee. Perceval is murdered, and Liverpool becomes Prime Minister, with Castlereagh Foreign Secretary, Sidmouth Home Secretary, Palmerstoii Secretary at War, and Peel Secretary for Ireland 1581. Germany. Prussia promises aid in a Russian war and a passage for French troops through her territories, and joins the Continent System (Feb.). Schamhorst, Gneisenau and other nationalists resign in disgust. 1582. Sweden. Bemadotte secretly allies with Russia, promising to effect a diversion in North Germany, with Russian aid, and renouncing his claim to Finland in return for an indemnity and a promise of Norway (April). The alliance is joined by England (July). 1583. Russia. Stratford Canning persuades Turkey to make the Treaty of Bucharest, by which Russia gains part of Bessarabia and Moldavia^ and becomes free for the French war (May). Napoleon re-establishes the Polish kingdom, despite the stipulation of the Treaty of Tilsit, and the Poles warmly espouse his cause. He crosses the Niemen with an army of nearly 500,000 men, including contingents from all countries subject to him (June 24), storms Smolensk (Aug.), drives back the Russians at Borodino (Sept. 7) and enters Moscow (Sept. 14), which is deserted and set on fire by Rostopchin, its governor. Owing to the climate, the lack of provisions and the shrinkage of his army, Napoleon sets out on his return (Oct. 19) with only 10)0,000 men, and wins a fierce battle at Jaroslavetz (Oct. 24). The frost begins (Nov. 6), and 20,000 cross the Beresina under heavy fire (Nov. 27). At this point the retreat becomes a rout, and Napoleon hurries back to Paris on news of the plot of Malet. The survivors cross the Niemen (Dec. 13), about 250,000 having perished in the campaign. General Yorck, the commander of the Prussian contingent in French service, concludes the Convention of Tauroggen with Russia, by which he undertakes to remain neutral (Dec. 30). 1584. Turkey. The Treaty of Bucharest leaves Turkey free to invade Servia, which, after nine years struggle for independence, is subdued. A second revolt breaks out under Milosch Obrenovitch, 1815. 1585. Spain. Wellington storms Ciudad Rodrigo (Jan.), and Badajos, which bar his entry into Spain (April), routs Marmont at Salamanca (July 22), and enters Madnd. The French armies, however, leave the south and compel Wellington, who fails to take Burgos, to retire to Portugal The Cortes issue a constitution, framed on French models, with a single assembly and limited monarchy, free press, abolition of feudal rights, and confiscation of Church lands. Catholicism, however, is pro- claimed the only true religion. 1812] CULTURE 319 2460. Soience. Bell distinguishes sensory and motor nerves. Avogadro founds the mechanical theory of gases, proving that equal volumes of gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules. Arago discovers that double refraction is possessed by the smallest plates of a crystal. Oppd first satisfactorily classifies reptiles. Chevreul investigates oils, soap and other fatty bodies. Leslie investigates heat-rays, out finds no affinity between radiant heat and light. 2451. Art. Thorwaldsen sculptures the Procession of Alexander the Oreat, commissioned by Napofeon for the QuirinaL 2452. Philology. Boeckh, a pupil of Wolf, becomes Professor of Classical Philology at Berlin. Rask, a Dane, compiles an Icelandic Grammar. 245s. Edncation. The National Society for educating the Poor in the Principles of the Established Church is founded by Joshua Watson, Marsh, Archbishop Sutton, and other churchmen. 2454. History. Niebuhr's History of Rome. 2456, Economics. The Bullion Committee of the Commons vainly urge the resumption of cash payments. 2466, Social. Believing that mechanical inventions diminish oppor- tunities of employment and reduce wages^ many working men, who are nicknamed Luddites, destroy machinery in the Yorkshire towns. 2457. Deaths. Earl Friedrich of Baden, Kleist. 2468. Eng. Ch. The Act of William III. against Non-Trini- r^g^g tarians, and the Conventicle and Five-Mile Acts are repealed. ^ 2459. RassiaQ Ch. The Tsar founds a Bible Society, which, however, is suppressed by his successor. 2460. Eng. Lit. Byron's Childe Harold, Cantos 1—2. James and Horace Smith's Rejected Addresses. Landor^s Count Julian. 2461. German Lit. Grimm's Fairy Tales. 2462. Science. Laplace's Th^orie Analvtique des Probability. John Herschel, Peacock and Babbage introduce the analytical methods in use on the Continent. Cuvier's Recherches sur les Ossements Fossiles des QuadrupMes founds palaeontology. Henry Bell's steam-boat, the Comet, plies on the Clyde. 246S. Philosophy. Hegel's Logic unfolds the logical genesis of the Absolute, which is conceived as a spiritual and self-conscious principle, by means of a dialectic. 2464. Philology. Gesenius' Hebrew and Chaldaic Dictionary. 320 POLITICS [1812 1586. Hnngaiy. The Diet is dissolved, the Emperor promising to call it again within three years. 1587. Aznerioa^ Louisiana is admitted to the Union as a slave state. Exasperated by the Orders in Council and by the search for deserters, the United States declare war against England. American privateers do considerable damage ; but an attack on Canada is repulsed. 1588. Spain. Wellington routs Joseph at Vittoria (June 21), ri813 and Soult at the battle of the Pyrenees, storms St Sebastian and '- takes Pampeluna. 1589. Germany. The King of Prussia annuls the Convention of Tauroggen and condemns lorck. On his own responsibility, Stein summons a Diet at Konigsberg (Feb.), which decrees a levy in arms of the whole population against France. The King, finding his hand forced, makes the Treaty of Ealisch with the Tsar, who promises to restore Prussia to her position before the battle of Jena (Feb.). Frederick William declares war (March), but Napoleon, with an army of young recruits, defeats the Russians and Prussians at Lutzen and Bautsen (May), and is joined by troops from Denmark and Saxony. He makes an armistice, hoping to win over Austria. Mettemich, however, agrees with Prussia, by the secret Treaty of Reichenbach, to mediate, and, if rebuffed, to declare war against France (June). His demands are refused, and, on receiving a large English subsidy, he declares war (Aug.). Oudinot is defeated by Bemadotte and Macdonald by Blucher, and, after Napoleon's victory at Dresden (Aug.), Vandamme capitulates to Russia at Culm, and Ney is crushed by Bemadotte (Sept.). By the Treaty of Toplitz, Austria and Prussia confirm their alliance and agree to recognise the rulers of S. and W. Germany. Bavaria joins the allies, wno rout Napoleon at Leipsic (Oct. 16 — 19), where the Saxon troops desert. The Fiench are driven across the Rhine, and the Con- federation of the Rhine dissolves. From the camp at Frankfort, terms are offered to Napoleon, leaving him the left bank of the Rhine, but are refused (Dec). Stein induces the Tsar to break off negotiations, and the Austrian armies enter France through Switzerland. 1590. Italy. On the news of the battle of Leipzic, Italy rises and Eugene Beauharnais is defeated by the Austrians (Oct.). 1591. Holland. On the news of the battle of Leipsic, the French are expelled, and the son of the former Stadtholder is restored as William I. 1592. Denmark. Denmark is forced to abandon the French alliance, and Norway is ceded to Sweden. Heligoland is ceded to England. 1593. Switzerland. The Constitution of 1803 is abolished. 1594. Montenegro. British and Montenegrin forces take Cattaro from the French ; but Russia agrees with Austria to take and keep it. 1595. Russia. By the Peace of Gulistan, Persia cedes Shirvan and Russia gains access to the Caspian. 1596. America. The English are defeated on Lake Erie. 1597. Asia. Trade with India is opened to all, the East India Company still retaining the monopoly of the Chinese trade. 1813] CULTURE 321 ^^^. Archaeology. Leake's Researches in Greece. 2466. Agricultnre. Thaer's Rational Agriculture. 2467. Social. Grillion's Club is founded in London. 2468. French Ch. Realising the absolute necessity of terminat- ri 31 3 ing his feud with the Pope, Napoleon has him conveyed from ^ Italy, and resorts to intimidation. A Concordat is made at Fontaine- bleau, providing that the Pope shall give Napoleon the nomination of bishops in France and Italy and that tne Metropolitan shall institute if the Pope does not do so within six months of nomination. After signing the document, Pius consults with Consalvi and Pacca, who persuade him to withdraw his concessions. 2469. Qerman Ch. Rohr's Letters and Wegscheider's Institutes of Rationalism assert that reason, the supreme authority in matters of religion, possesses the right to reject aU doctrines whicn are repugnant to it, which go beyond natural religion, or which have no moral end. 2470. Asiatic Ch. The new Charter of the East India Company provides for a Bishop for India, and allows the introduction of missionanes. 2471. Eng. Lit. Southe/s Life of Nelson. Shelley's Queen Mab. 2472. German Lit. Eomer, Amdt, XJhland and Jahn compose patriotic songs. 247s, Science. Brewster distin^ishes single and double axis crystals. Gray-Lussac's Memoir on lodme. De CandoUe's Th^rie de la Botanique retains Jussieu's divisions of acotyledons, monocotvledons and dicotyledons. 2474* Art. The Philharmonic Society is founded in London. Bishop's opera. The MiUer and his Men, containing When the Wind Blows, and other songs. 2475, Philosophy. Herbart's Introduction to Philosophy leads a reaction against the pantheism of Fichte and Schelling, to some extent on the lines of Leibnitz. 2476, Politics. Benjamin Constant's De I'Esprit de Conqu6te et de rUsuipation vigorously attacks Napoleon. 2477, Anthropology. Pritchard's Physical History of Man founds anthropology in England, and contends for the primitive unity of the species. He discusses peoples in regard to language, bodily form and civilisation. 2478, Social. Elizabeth Fry begins to visit the prisons. Insolvent debtors are released from prison. The Apprenticeship and Wages Act of 1563 is repealed. 2479, Deatiis. Komer, Lagrange, Schamhorst, Wieland. o. 21 822 pouTics [1814 1598. En^and. Lord Cochrane is accused of defrauding the riQ]^4 Stock Exchange by inventing a rumour of the death of Napoleon. >- 1599. France. iNegotiations begin at the Congress of Chatillon (Feb.) ; but Napoleon wins a few trifling successes, and refuses the boundaries of 1792, which are offered by the Allies. Castlereagh joins the Allies (March), and Schwarzenburg and Blucher fight their way to Paris. Napoleon abdicates (April 6), and is allowed to retire to Elba. At the same moment Wellindion defeats Soult at Toulouse. Louis XVIIL becomes Eong, and is forced by Alexander to grant a Charter of repre- sentative government. Louis concludes the first Treaty of Paris (May 30). The frontier of 1790 is increased, France obtaining Avignon, the Venaissin, and part of Savoy, and regaining all her Colonies except Mauritius, St Lucia, and Tobago. England retains Malta, the Cape of Good Hope, and the lie de France. Belgium is to be united to Holland, and Germany to fonn a Confederacy. Secret clauses resolve that German Princes are to be compensated on the left bank of the Rhine. Sardinia is to receive Genoa, and Austria, Lombardy and Venice. Details are to be arranged at a Congress which meets at Vienna (Nov. 1), and is attended by Mettemich, Talleyrand, Hardenberg, Nesselrode, Castlereagh and Wellington. 1600. Spain. Ferdinand returns to Madrid (Ma^), and at first promises to respect the Constitution of 1812, but soon dissolves the Cortes, and restores the nobles' exemptions. 1601. Italy. Murat joins the Allies (Jan.). Beauhamais defeats the Austrians (Feb.), but Genoa is taken b^ the English (April). The Pope returns to Rome, and Victor Emanuel is restored to his dominions. 1602. Sweden. By the Peace of Kiel, Norway is transferred from Denmark to Sweden, which cedes Swedish Pomerania and Rugen to Denmark (Jan.). Charles XHL accepts the Constitution and declares Norway independent and indivisible (Nov.). 1603. America. The English troops bum the public buildings of Washington ; but their invasion via Lake Champiain is repulsed. A large army is sent to take New Orleans. In the summer, the American commissioners, Clav, Quincy Adams and Gallatin, are sent to Ghent, and sign a treaty, the indirect cause of war being removed by the fall of Napoleon (Dec). Meanwhile the New England States, where the war is strongly disapproved, meet in convention at Hartford, and propose States Rights Amendments to the Constitution. Argentina forces Monte Video to desert Spain. Francia becomes Dictator of Paraguay. 1604. Asia. By the Treaty of Teheran, England promises to aid Persia if attacked, and Persia to attack Afghanistan if the latter invades India. 18i4] CULTURE 323 B480, Eng. Ch. The Wesleyan Mlssionair Society is organised* ri 01 4 A great outburst of missionary activity takes place at the same ir^^^ time in Holland, Switzerland and Germany. Joanna Southcote, the prophetess, who declares she is the woman spoken of in Revelation, dies, leaving followers, the New Israelites, who found a chapel in London. Routh's Reliquiae Sacrae collect literary fragments of the early Christian Church. ^481. Scotch Ch. Chalmers becomes minister at Glasgow. US2, ItaUfiun Ch. The Inquisition is restored. £4^3, Spanish Ch. Ferdinand restores the Inquisition, and renews the Index. William Mark, Consul at Malaga^ introduces Protestantism, which is extended by Borrow and Rule. ^^484. Rusaiaii Ch. Mme de Erudener begins to preach, and gains influence over the Tzar. 2480, Church Hist. The Order of Jesuits (ahready revived in Russia and Naples) and the Index are restored by the Pope, and Bible Societies, which are founded in Prussia and Russia, are condemned. 2486. Asiatic Ch. The first English Bishopric in India is established at Calcutta. 2487. Eng. Lit. Walter Scott's Waverley (anonymously published) commences the series of Waverley Novels. Wordsworth's Excursion. Walter begins to print the ' Times' with steam. Edmund Kean makes his d^but as Shylock. 8488. German Lit. Gorres' German Mercury demands the left bank of the Rhine, and earns for its author the title of the Fifth Great Power against Napoleon. Chamisso's Peter SchlemihL Riickert's Poems. ^489, Science. Wells explains the phenomenon of dew. Fraunhofer discovers 576 black hues in a ray of sunlight, but fails to explain them. Orfila's Toxicologie creates the science of poisons. £490, Art. David Cox writes a treatise on landscape-painting, and with Prout, de Wint, Creswick and Bonington, continues the work of Constable. £491. Philology. Toung begins to decipher the Rosetta Stone. Abel R^musat translates the Chinese romance. The Two Cousins, and studies Japanese Literature. £4^2. Politics. Benjamin Constant's Esquisse de Constitution recom- mends the constitutional government of England and influences the composition of the Charter. Niebuhr's Prussia's Right to Saxony supports the annexation on the ground of nationality. Chateaubriand's Bonaparte et les Bourbons bitterly attacks the former and recommends the restoration of the latter. 21—2 324 POLITICS [1816 1605. En^and. A secret treaty is made with Austria and rioic France to counteract the ambitions of Kussia and Prussia. ^ 1606. Frajice. Napoleon escapes from Elba, and lands in France (March). Russia, Austria, Prussia, and England at once ally to resist him. rfey is sent against him, but joins him, and Louis XVIII. escapes to Belgium. He enters Paris (March 21), and issues the Acte Addi- tionnel, drawn up by Constant. His offer to accept the Treaty of Paris is refused, and he marches north. Sending Ney to keep the English in check at Quatre Bras, he defeats the Prussians at Ligny and detaches Grouchy to keep them from joining Wellington (June 16). Napoleon attacks Wellington at Waterloo. Wellington's troops repulse every attack until the Prussians arrive, and then charge (June 18). The Allies enter Paris, Napoleon abdicates, and is removed to St Helena, and Louis is restored. ^ By the Second Peace of Paris, France is to pay 30 millions and maintain a garrison for five years, to cede the portion of Savoy retained in 1814 to the Eang of Sardinia, and small districts to Belgium, Prussia, and Switzerland, and to restore the works of art removed during the wars. Richelieu succeeds Talleyrand, Ney is shot (Dec. 7), and the Wliite Terror breaks out in Marseilles, Nlmes, Toulouse, and other parts of the South. 1607. Italy. On the landing of Napoleon in France, Murat attacks the Papal States, but is defeated by Austrian troops. Ferdinand IV. returns, and Murat, who attempts to raise an insurrection, is captured and shot (Oct.). Ferdinand secretly agrees with Mettemich not to introduce constitutional liberty, and suppresses the Parliament granted to Sicily in 1813. Consalvi obtains the restoration of the Marches and the Legations to the Papacy, and, aided by Capaccini, begins to reorganise the Papal States. Genoa is annexed to the Sardinian Kingdom. Austria receives Lombardy and Venetia. The Dukes of Modena and Tuscany are restored. Marie Louise, Napoleon's wife, receives Parma and Piacenza, with succession to the rightful heir, who receives for the time the duchy of Lucca. 1608. Germany. A Staaten-bund is formed, consisting of 39 States, each sending representatives to the Diet at Frankfort, i)resided over by Austria. The Diet may order federal execution against recalcitrant States, each of which, however, is to have an assembly. Prussia receives the Rhineland, part of Saxony (Lusatia), the provinces of Posen and Thorn, and Swedish Pomerania and Rugen. Bavaria obtains Ansnach and BavreutJi. Hanover becomes a Kingdom and gains East Friesland and Hildesheim. Frederick William promises a Constitution to Prussia. 1609. Aostria. Trieste, Istria, Dahnatia, Ragusa, Camiola, Croatia, South Tyrol and part of Southern Galicia are restored to the Emperor. 1610. Sweden. Sweden is confirmed in the possession of Norway. Denmark loses Swedish Pomerania, and receives the Duchy of Lauen- burg. 1611. Holland. Belgium is united to Holland under William Frederick 1816] CULTURE 325 £49S, ^ Law. SavigDy's work, The Claim on our Age of Legislation and a Science of Law, declares law part of the organic life of a nation. Thibaut urges the necessity of a national code for Oermany. ^494' Social. Sweden and Holland abolish the Slave Trade in their dominions. On his return from Elba Napoleon follows their example. The Congress of Vienna refuses Castlereagh's proposal for a Council of Ambassadors charged with the duty of expediting the close of the traffic, and contents itseu with a formal condemnation. Spain and Portugal alone continue the commerce (the latter only on the south of the line), alleging in their defence that their colonies are not so well supplied with slaves as those of England when prohibition was carried. £495. Death. Fichte. 2496. Oerman Ch. Wessenberg, Vicar-General of the diocese of r^g^g Constance, urges the Vienna Congress to found a German national ^ Church under a Gterman primate. Each state makes its own Concordat with the Pope. 2497. French Lit. B^ranser's first collection of songs. Benjamin Constant's Aaolphe, a romance based on his relations with Mme de StaeL 2498. American Lit. Bnrant's Thanatopsis. £499. Literature. Beowulf is found and published by Thorkelin. 2500. Art. Schubert composes music to Goethe's ballad, the Erlking. 2501. Science. William Smith completes his stratigraphical map of England and Wales, after 25 years' surveying. Leslie investigates radiant heat. Dupuytren becomes chief surgeon of the Hdtel-Dieu at Paris and improves diagnosis. Fresnel's Memoir on the Diffraction of Light independently reaches Young's discovery of the principle of interference. Arago adopts the undulatory theory, which now becomes generally accepted. Von Buch visits the Canary Isles, which he attnbutes to volcanic action. 2502. FhiloBophy. Cousin becomes Professor of Philosophy at the Sorbonne, and aids Boyer-Collard in the revival of idealism. 2503. Economics. Malthus and West independently state the true doctrine of rent, already outlined by Anderson, 1779, namely, that rent is equal to the excess of the price of the produce of land over the cost of production, the price of the entire supply being regulated by the cost of production on the worst land. 326 POLITICS [1816 of Nassau. Luxemburg becomes a member of the Bund, and is given to the Eingof the Netherlands in return for a renunciation of his Nassau lands. The town is made a Bund fortress. 1612. Switzerland. The Congress of Vienna adds Geneva, Valais, and Neuch^tel (the latter with reservation of Prussia's sovereign rights), and guarantees neutrality. 1613. Poland. The Grand Duchy of Warsaw is formed into the King- dom of Poland in union with Russia, but with responsible government, a national army, fla^, and budget, a free press, and the official use of the native language. Cracow is made a free state. 1614. Russia. Under the influence of Madame de Erudener, the Tsar forms the Holy Alliance with Austria and Prussia for the application of Christian principles to politics (Aug.). 1615. Greece. The Ionian Islands become an independent republic under English protection. Sir Thomas Maitland being appointed High Commissioner. 1616. America. Before the news of the Treaty of Ghent arrives, Jackson routs the English at New Orleans. Brazil becomes a kingdom under the Prince Regent of Portugal 1617. West Indies. France retains Guadeloupe and Martinique. 1618. AfHca. England occupies and garrisons Ascension Island. Reunion is restored to France. 1619. England. The income-tax is abolished, and silver is rioio demonetised. ^ 1 620. France. After a violent conflict between the (Jovernment and the Ultra-royalists, an Amnesty Bill is carried by Richelieu. The Chamber demands other reactionary measures, but, by the advice of Decazes, is dissolved by the King, who, on his own authority introduces direct representation. A moderate majority is returned, and the ministry of Richelieu receives support from the party of Doctrinaires, led by Royer- Collard, De Serre, Camille Jordan and De Broglie. The new dynasty, however, is attacked in the Chamber and the Press by the Left, led by Benjamin Constant, Lafayette, Manuel and Laffitte, by the Bonapartists Fouch^ and B^ranger, and by Courier. The Government continues to be attacked by the Ultra-royalists, of whom Vill^le becomes the leader. 1621. Germany. Saxe-Wemiar obtains a Constitution; and its example is shortly followed by Hanover, Bavaria, Baden. 1622. Austria. By the Treaty of Munich, Salzburg and the Circle of the Inn are restored to Austria. 1623. America. A Tariff Act is passed which imposes heavy duties on cotton, woollens, salt and iron, and introduces the minimum principla A second United States Bank is chartered for 20 years. Chief Justice Marshall pronounces a series of decisions in favour of the United States, and dimmishes State Rights. The provinces of La Plata proclaim their independence as the Argentine Republic. 1816] CULTURE 327 i^S04. Social. The Apothecaries' Act forbids medical practice without a qualification. The importation of wheat into England is forbidden until the price reaches SOs. Bounties on corn cease, and export is allowed. SS05. Death. BumfonL f^06. Eng. Ch. A motion for the relief of Catholics is rejected r]^3]^Q by the Lords. ^ f^507. Eng. Lit. Jane Austen's Emma. Scott's Old Mortalitv. Cobbett's Political Kegister^ the first cheap periodical, is published at 2d. Byron's Childe Harold, Canto in. Coleridge's Christabel is published. PeacocK's Headlong Hall satirises the romanticists. i^08, French Lit. The King revives the French Academy, and the Academies of Science, Art, and Belles-Lettres. fSS09. Art. Parliament purchases the Elgin Marbles. Brossini's Barber of Seville. 2S10. Science. Brewster invents a Kaleidoscope. £S1I. Politics. Owen's New View of Society sketches a communistic association, and declares character the product of circumstances. Haller s Restoration of Political Science attacks the contract theory and supports autocracy, aristocracy and ultramontanism. £512, Philology. Bopp's System of Conjugation proves the conmion origin of grammatical forms. 2S13. Education. Froebel organises a community at Keilhau in Thuringia. Polytechnic schools for Applied Science, borrowed from French models, are established in Germany. 2514* Law. Niebuhr finds the Commentaries of Gains at Verona. 2515. History. Karamsin's History of Russia. 2516. Social. Unusual distress is caused by a bad season, and riots occur at Spa Fields and elsewhere. A stream of emigrants begins to leave England for America and the colonies. 2517. Death. Sheridan. 328 POLITICS [1816 1624. ilfrica. Lord Exmouth bombards Algiers and releases many Christian slaves. The Dey is forced to abolish Christian slavery. The Gambia colony is formed, chiefly by settlers forced to leave Senegal when restored to France. 1625. Asia. Lord Amherst is sent on a mission to Pekin, but refuses to ' kow-tow,' and in consequence returns without obtaining an audience of the Emperor. The war between the East India Company and Nepal, a tributary state of China, caused by a frontier outrage, is terminated, and an English Resident is placed at the camtal. Java is restored by England to the DutcL 1626. En^and. The Regent is attacked and the Blanketecrs ^1317 march from Manchester, but are dispersed. The Habeas Corpus ^ Act is suspended, and the Sidmouth Circular to the Lords Lieutenant authorises the arrest of libellers. The Princess Charlotte, only child of the Regent, married in 1816 to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, dies. In consequence, the Dukes of Cambridge, Clarence, and Kent marry, 1818. The Military and Naval Officers' Oath BiU opens all ranks in the army and navy to Catholics. 1627. Ireland. The two Exchequers are united, the Irish Debt is joined to the National Debt, and equal taxes are levied on articles in both countries. Exemptions and abatements may be granted whenever necessary. 1628. Prance. The partial renovation of the Chamber still further weakens the Ultra-royalists. Part of the troops are recalled, and the Tsar diminishes the indemnity. Financial credit is restored and arrangements for a loan are made. 1629. Germany. The Grand Duchy of Weimar, where alone a consti- tution has been granted, becomes the centre of liberal propaganda. The celebration of the third centenary of Luther's protest and the battle of Leipsig by German students at the Wartburg, and the burning of the writings of Haller, Schmalz, and other reactionaries, frightens the Powers. The Duke of Weimar is forced to curtail the liberties of his subjects. 1630. Turkey. Milosh, who has murdered his rival, Kara George, is declared hereditary prince of Servia. Turkish troops continue to garrison the fortresses, and the Sultan receives tribute. The quarrel between the fjEonilies, however, continues through the century. 1631. Russia. A Secret Society is founded to obtain constitutional government. Among its members are many republicans. 1632. America. The United States send Commissioners to establish commercial relations with the revolted colonies of Spain. The Portuguese of Brazil conquer Montevideo. Bolivar, after several repulses, defeats the Spanish troops and becomes the head of the Government of Venezuela. 1817] CULTURE 329 2618. Eng. Ch. By the efforts of Joshaa Watson, the Church r^<^yj Building Society is founded, few churches having been erected ^ since the reign of Queen Anne. Application for assistance is made to Lord Liverpool, who persuades Parhament to grant one million pounds for the purpose, and appoints a Commission to superintend its distribu- tion. 2519. French Ch. Lamennais' Essay on Indifference attacks indi- vidualism and scepticism. A new Concordat abolishes that of 1801 and restores the instrument of 1516, but is attacked by Frayssinous and is never adopted. 2620. Oerman Oh. At the wish of King Frederick William, the Lutheran and Reformed Churches unite in the Evangelical Union to commemorate 1517. The Union spreads from Prussia to Wiirtemburg, Baden, Anhalt, Nassau, and the Bhine Provinces. An ultramontane Concordat is made by Bavaria with Rome, on the fall of Montgelas. 2621. Spanish Ch. Llorente, late Secretary of the Inquisition, publishes a History of the Spanish Inquisition. 2622.^ African Ch. Robert Moffat begins mission work in South Africa. 2625. Eng. Lit. Blackwood's Magazine is founded, edited by Chris- topher North (Wilson), who contributes his Noctes Ambrosianae. Mary Shelley's Frankenstein. Moore's Lalla Rookh. 2624, Science. Cuvier's R^e Animal classifies animals as vertebrata, mollusca, articulata and radiata. 2626. Art. Chantrey's Sleeping Children. (Lichfield.) 2626. Philosophy. Schubert lectures at Munich on magic and mag- netism, and carries romanticism into philosophy. 2627. Philology. Boeckh's Domestic Economy of the Athenians. Ottfried Mtiller's Hellenic Races. 2628. Politics. Ballanche explains his theory of Palingenesis, i.e., a return through trials to the state before the fall. 2629. Economics. Ricardo's Political Economy and Taxation explains the theory of rent, and states that wages tend to the level of suosist- ence. His system is popularised by James and John Mill, Malthus, McCuUoch, Torrens, and Harriet Martineau. 2680. Geography. Ritter's Geography in relation to Nature and History founds comparative geography. 2681. Deaths. Jane Austen, Dalberg, Kosciusko, Mme de Stael, Werner. 330 POLITICS [1818 [1818 1633. England. The Habeas Corpus Act is restored, and is not again suspended. Romilly and Brougham fail to repeal the Septennial Act. 1634. Russia. Alexander addresses the Polish Diet in a very liberal strain, and announces his intention of extending representative institu- tions to Russia. A few weeks later, however, he is thought to have received information of the existence of numerous anti-dynastic secret societies. At any rate he abandons his liberalism at this moment, and adopts the views of Mettemich, and inspires an alarmist pamphlet by Stourdza, a Moldavian. 1635. France. The Ultra-royalist reaction having almost spent itself, the Tsar summons the Powers to a Congress to meet at Aix-la-Chapelle, and decrees the evacuation of France, though five years' occupation had been originally contemplated. Louis agrees with the Powers to act together for peace, and in any distur&nce to concert measures at a Congress. A tacit understanding to combine against liberal move- ments is arrived at. England is prevented by Canning from joining the Concert. 1636. Germany. Under the influence of Wilhelm v. Humboldt, the Ein^ of Prussia determines to grant a Constitution ; but Mettemich advises the creation of provincial Diets. The King of Bavaria grants a Constitution. List conceives the idea of the ZoUverein, or Customs Union, and Prussia abolishes duties on transit through its territories. 1637. Sweden. Bemadotte becomes King of Sweden. 1638. America. Jackson, while pursuing some Indians in the Seminole war, crosses the border of Florida and seizes two Spanish towns. England and the United States agree to occupy Oregon jointly for ten years. The Northern boundary is fixed ; the question of fisheries is settled ; and England gives up her rights to the navigation of the Mississippi. Chill proclaims her independence, and San Martin defeats a Spanish army. 1639. Asia. The Pindarics are suppressed by the Marquis of Hastings; the Pcshwas are extinguished and their dominions annexed ; the BAjah of Na^pur is put under British guardianship, and the BAJputana States place tnemselves under British protection. 1640. En^and. Burdett's motion for annual Parliaments, the rioig ballot, and universal suffrage is lost. ^ A Manchester reform meeting is broken up by the military at the Peterloo massacre (Aug.). The Six Acts, carried against strong opposi- tion, forbid training to arms, take steps against libels, empower Justices of the Peace to search for and seize arms, impose a newspaper stamp on pamphlets, prevent meetings of more than 50 without six days' notice to the Justice of the Peace, and forbid the attendance of all but free- holders or residents, and deprive defendants in cases of misdemeanour of the right of traversing. 1819] CULTURE 331 253^. French Ch. Vianey becomes Gar4 d'Ars. r^g^g ^5^. Oennan Ch. Representatives of several West and South l-^ German states meet at rrankfurt and revive the ideas of Febronius ; but the nationalist movement is combated by Niebuhr, the Prussian envoy at Home. 2S3i. Eng. Lit. The Quarterlv Review (probably Oifford) and Black- wood's Magazine roughlv attack Eeats' Endymion. Shelley protests. Shelley s Revolt of Islam. Scott's Heart of Midlothian. Susan Fender's novel, Marriage. 2535. French Lit. Mme de Stael's Considerations sur la Revolution Fran9aise eulogise Necker, and discriminate the lastmg benefits from the temporary extravagances. 2536. Oennan Lit. Grillpaner^s Sappho. 2537. Art. Landseer's Fighting Dogs getting Wind, his first great success. 2538. Science. De GandoUe's Prodromus Systematis Naturalis de- scribes 80,000 species. Bessel's Fundamenta Astronomiae contain reduced places of stars observed by Bradley. Encke's comet is discovered, revolving round the sun in 3^ years. 2539. Edncation. The kin^ of Prussia founds a University at Bonn. 2540. History. Hallam's Histoiy of the Middle Ages. Mill's History of British India. 2541. Geography. Sir John Ross is sent to find the North Pole. 2542. Social. An agricultural pauper colony is planted at Fredericksoord in Holland. 2543. Deaths. Monge, Thugut 2544. Irish Ch. Doyle becomes Bishop of Eildare and n^i^ Leighlin. 2545. French Ch. De Maistre's Du Pape contends for infallibility and for the temporal power, not only as an ecclesiastical right, but as a political and social precaution. 2546. German Ch. Hermes' Philosophical Introduction to Christian Theology asserts that the belief of reason precedes and strengthens the belief of revelation. 2547. American Ch. Channing, a minister at Boston, preaches a sermon, which becomes the manifesto of Unitarianism. The Unitarian body is joined chiefly by Gongregationalists. 2548. Eng. Lit. Keats Odes to a Nightingale and to a Grecian Urn. Shelley's Prometheus Unbound, the Cenci, and Ode to the West Wind. Scott's Bride of Lammermoor. Byron's Don Juan. 332 POLITICS [1819 « Bichard Garlile is imprisoned for seven years for publishing free- thinking and republican works. Peel effects the resumption of cash payments by the Bank of England. 1641. France. The election of the Abb^ Gr^oire as a Deputy is regarded by the King as an attack on the throne, and frightens Decazes into a less liberal policy. 1642. Germany. Sand, a student, murders Eotzebue, a Russian agent, who is thought to have caused the Tsar's apostasy from liberalism, and has written against the German universities (March). Mettemich there- fore calls a meeting of ministers at Carlsbad, and recommends the muzzling of the piress, the control of the teaching of the universities by Government officials, and a commission to sit at Mainz to investigate the conspiracy. The Carlsbad resolutions are framed, and are adopted by the Diet. Metternich's proposal to suspend the constitutions of the minor States is defeated by the Tsar's influence. The proposed Russian constitution is given up, and W. v. Humboldt and other Liberals with- draw from the service of the State. Gopes' (Germany and the Revolu- tion passionately denounces the breaking of their promises by the Governments. 1643. RoBsia. Araktcheief forms the first militanr colonies. 1644. Turkey. Ali Pasha, of Jannina, obtains Parga, the last of the Venetian possessions, and reaches the highest point of his power. 1645. America. A treaty is concluded with the King of Spain (who is in need of money), giving up his claim to West Florida (occupied by the United States since 1810) and ceding East Florida. The Umted States surrender their claim to Texas. Missouri's petition to be admitted as a slave state is discussed, but no decision is reached. Maine, joined to Massachusetts since 1676, aiao petitions for admission. Bolivar defeats the Spaniards, forms the Republic of Columbia from the uni6n of New Granada and Venezuela, and becomes its first Presi- dent. 1646. Asia. Speranski becomes Governor-General of Siberia. Siugapore is occupied by Sir Stamford Raffles. 1647. En^and. Thistlewood's conspiracy to kill the ministers rioon is detected. ^ The new King attempts to dissolve his marriage on charges of mis- conduct ; but the project is resisted by public opinion, led by Brougham and Denman, and abandoned. Russell's Bill for disfranchising four rotten boroughs passes the Commons and is rejected in the Lords. London merchants petition for Free Trade. 1648. Prance. The Duke of Berry, son of the Count of Artois, is murdered ; but his widow gives birth to a son, afterwards the Comte de Chambord. A strong roysJist reaction sets in and Decazes resigns. 1649. Spain. The army declares for the Constitution of 1812. The King is forced to yield, and appoints Liberals to office (Feb.), but 1820] CULTURE 833 2549. Literature. Mai becomes Librarian of the Vatican, and dis- covers Cicero's De Republica, which he publishes, 1822. ^50. Science. The first steamboat crosses the Atlantic. Mitscherlich discovers isomorphism, i.e., that an equal number of atoms in compounds of the same class can replace each other in the compound without altering its crystalline form. Oersted discovers electro-magnetism. Ampere repeats the experi- ments and reaches the laws of electro-d3mamical action. Dulong and Petit discover the connexion between the specific heats and the atomic weights of the elements. Laennec invents auscultation. j85Ji. Art. Weber's Der Freischutz. Turner ceases to be imitative and produces Childe Harold's Pil- grimage, Ulysses deriding Polyphemus, etc. G^ricault's Baft of the Medusa initiates the romantic reaction. 2S52. Philology. H. H. Wilson's Sanskrit Dictionarv. Grimm's German Grammar reaches Bopp's results independently, and states the law of Lautverschiebung, or permutation of consonants, already guessed by Bask. 8553. Philosophy. Schopenhauer's World as Will and Bepresentation declares the will to live the root of evil, and maintains that extinction should be the ^oal of endeavour. 255j^ Law. Kluber publishes a system of positive international law. ^55, Economics. Sismondi's Nouveaux Principes d'Economie Poli- tique lay greater stress on well-being than on wealth. 2556. Geography. Parry accompanies Boss on an unsuccessful ex- pedition in search of the North role. In the following year, he traces a considerable portion of the North- West passaga 2557. Deaths. Blucher, Watt. 2558. Eng. Ch. Darby, an Anglican clergyman, leaves the n32o Church and founds a community at Pljrmoutn, teaching a rigid *■ Calvinism and the priesthood of all believers. Some years later, he foes to reside in Switzerland, which becomes the headquarters of the lymouth Brethren. 2559. Scotch Ch. Erskine's first book, Bevealed Beligion, adopts Coleridge's method of discussing theology. McLeod Campbell, minister of Bow, shares Ebrskme's ideas, and is expelled from the Kirk. 2560. German Ch. Bretschneider contests the authorship of St John's Gospel and Epistles. 2561. American Ch. John Endand becomes Bishop of Charlestown, and increases the influence and prestige of Catholicism by his ad- ministration and his writings. 334 POLITICS [1820 appeals for aid to the Holy Alliance. The Cortes abolish the mona- steries and Inquisition, and secure freedom of the press and meeting 1650. Portugal. Owing to the rising in Spain, a revolt takes place and a constitution is introduced. The King returns &om Brazil 1651. Italy. The Carbonari revolt in Naples, and the army under Pepe demands the Spanish Constitution of 1812. The King forms a Liberal ministry and swears to the Constitution, but informs the Emperor of Austria that he has acted under restraint Sicily also demands inde- pendence. 1652. Oermany. On news of the revolutions in Southern Europe, Mettemich convenes a Congress at Troppau (Oct.), (transferred to Laybach, Dec.). Austria is authorised to intervene in Italy. Castle- reagh protests against united action, contemplated in the Circular of Tropnau. Tne Diet adopts the Supplementary Act of Vienna, by which the Federation obtains power to interfere to maintain order in the weaker states. Wurtemberg receives a Constitution. 1653. America. Maine and Missouri are admitted as states; but slavery is forbidden in the Louisiana purchase, north of Arkansas. The Missouri Compromise postpones the struggle over the extension of slavery for a generation. Iturbide marches on Mexico and establishes a Regency. 1654. Afidca. About 3,000 emigrants are sent to Cape (jolony. The Washington Colonisation Society founds Liberia for the repatria- tion of negroes. Mehemet Ali conquers the Sudan and Eordofan, 1655. England. Grampound is disfranchised by Lord John rigo|^ R\issell, and the two seats are given to Yorkshire. ^ 1656. France. Richelieu, failing to keep pace with the royalist re- action, resigns, and VillMe forms the first nomogeneous Ministry of the Right. The Congregation becomes a formidable organ of the reaction. 1657. Italy. Ferdinand is allowed to go to meet the sovereigns at Laybach. An Austrian army is dispatch^ to Naples, and defeats Pepe. Death, imprisonment, or exile are meted out to the Constitutionalists. Sicily is also reduced. While the Austrian troops are absent a revolt breaks out in Pied- mont. Victor Emanuel abdicates in favour of his brother, Charles Felix, who is absent in Modena, the administration being ^ven to Charles Albert, of Carignano, who proclaims the Spanish Constitution. Charles Felix declares these measures void, and Austrian troops suppress the revolt. 1658. Greece. A revolt, prepared chiefly by the Hetairia Philike, and to some extent by literary influences and Russian intrigues, begins in Moldavia, led by Hypsilanti, in the expectation, perhaps fostered by 1821] CULTURE 335 f^62. Eng. Lit Eeats' Eve of St Agnes. De Quincey'a Confessions of an Opium-Eater. f^63. French Lit. Lamartine's Mutations, the first poem of ro- manticism. ^564, American Lit Washington Irving's Sketch-book. SS6S. Russian Lit Pushkin's first poems, deeply influenced by Byron. ^566, Art. The V^nus de Milo is found (Louvre). ^567. Philosophy. Brown's Lectures on the Philosophy of Mind introduce the idea of a ' muscular sense/ and reduce most of Beid's first principles to secondary products. ^568. Philology. Abel B^musat's Langues Tartares. 2S69, Politics. Crete's pamphlet on I^rdical Beform and James Mill's article on Government in the Encyclopaedia Britannica advocate a low sufirage, and reveal the hostility of the new radicals to the current Whig philosophy. ^usharia, Stefiens, Botteck, and Troxler publish works in support of constitutionalism. Ancillon defends autocracv. ^570. Law. Bomagnosi's Science of Law declares civil society the offspring not of an arbitrary contract but of reason, and maintains that right is not created by law. ^S71. Deaths. Banks, Grattan, Young. £572, German Ch. Schleiermacher's Christian Belief declares ri ooi that Christianity is accepted on the strength of internal ezpe- >- rience, and is therefore independent of miracles or history. Niebuhr, on behalf of Prussia, concludes a Concordat highly favourable to the Boman Church. 2373. Eng. Lit Shelley's Adonais. Gait's Annals of the Parish. £574. German Lit Platen's Lyrics. Wilhelm Miiller's Songs of the Greeks. £575. American Lit Fennimore Cooper's novel, The Spy. £576, Bohemian Lit Eollar's Daughter of Slava, a series of sonnets on love and Bohemian nationality. £577, Science. Faraday discovers electro-magnetic rotation. Sabine commences pendulum measurements in order to ascertain the shape of the earth. Seebeck discovers thermo-electricity. £578. Philosophy. De Maistre's Soirdes de St P^tersbourg attempt to vindicate the existence of evil. £579. Philologv. Champollion's L'Ecriture hi^ratique. W. Humboldt's Essay on the Basques and their Language. £580. Politics. Hegel's Philosophy of Bight advocates constitutional 836 POLITICS [1821 Capodistrias, Foreign Minister of Russia, of Russian support The revolt is, however, disowned by the Tsar, and the Turks are victorious at Dragatschan (June). At this moment, the Morea and Central Greece rise, and are joined by Ali Pasha of Jannina. 1659. America. Brazil declares itself independent, and Don Pedro, eldest son of John VI., is elected Emperor. Chilians and Argentines enter Lima, the capital of Peru and the stronghold of Spanish power. The Viceroy flies, and independence is proclaimed. Guatemala, Costa Rica, La Plata, Uruguay, Venezuela also declare their independence. The Republic of San Domingo is formed. 1660. En^and. Castlereagh commits suicide, and Canning, rio22 despite the opposition of the King, becomes Foreign Secretary. '- Canning's Bill to admit Catholic peers to the House of lords passes the Commons. 1661. Spain. The Powers meet at Verona, where Wellington represents England, to discuss the revolutions in Greece and Spain, in which civil war again breaks out, and demand a modification of the Spanish Consti- tution and the restoration of the authority of the King. In the event of refusal, France is authorised to use compulsion. A proposal is made to suppress the revolt of the Spanish colonies. 1662. (Greece. The independence of Greece is proclaimed, and a national Convention drawn up a Constitution. Ali Pasha is defeated and slain by the Turks (Feb.), and the inhabitants of Chios are massacred. The invasion of the Morea^ however, is repulsed, Missolonghi is unsuccess- fully besieged, and Admiral Canaris bums part of the Turkish fleet. 1663. Turkey. The Phanariot rule in the Danubian Principalities is ended by the Greek revolt, and Roumanian nobles are appointed Hospodars by the Porte. 1664. America. San Martin, the Dictator of Peru, falls. Iturbide becomes Emperor of Mexico ; but he is deserted by his supporters and abdicates, 1823. The United States recognise the revolted colonies. 1665. Russia. War with Turkey is averted by the influence of Metter- nich, and Capodistrias resigns his position. 1666. En^and. 17,000 Freeholders of Yorkshire demand re- n323 form. *• ^ Nugent's Bill to admit Catholics to the franchise and to certain officers passes the Commons. 1667. Ireland. The Catholic Association is formed by O'Connell and Sheil, to support the movement for Emancipation. 1668. Spain. A Rrench army, under the Duke of Angoul^me, invades Spain, and enters Madrid after slight resistance (May). Ferdinand, who has been deposed (June), is restored, revokes everything done since 1820, and inflicts savage penalties on the Constitutionalists. 1823] CULTUBE 337 monarchy as a historical growth, and declares the State the realisation of the absolute spirit. Gorres' Europe and the Bevolution depicts Europe as a prey to alternate fits of despotism and revolution. ^81. History. The fcole des Ghartes is founded in Paris for the study of historical documents. B582. Deaths. Keats, Joseph de Maistre, Napoleon. S583, Eng. Ch. Edward Irving begins to preach in London. ri822 f^84, German Ch. Walther's Ecclesiastical Law, an ultra- L montane text-book. Tschirner's Protestantism and Catholicism blends evangelicalism and rationalism and anticipates the theological revolution. f^8S. Eng. Lit. Lamb's Essays of Elia. Rogers' Italy. £586. Arench Lit. De Vigny's poems. 8587. Oerman Lit. Heine's fir^ poems. fB588, Russian Lit. Griboiedof s The Misfortune of being too Clever, a satirical play. 2589, Science. Fourier's Thdorie analytique de la Chaleur explains the propagation of heat, but assumes that the conductivity of a substance for heat is constant for all temperatures. Flourens' Syst^me Nerveux dans les Animaux vert^bres. Poncelet's rropridtds proiectives des Figures establishes the chief properties of conies and quadrics by means of projection. Oken founds the German Association for Science, which is extended by Alexander Humboldt, 1828. fB590, Art. Liszt's ddbut as a pianist at Vienna. 2591. Philosophy. Baader's rermenta Co^itionis, deeplv influenced by Bohme, attempts a theosophic system m which the kingdoms of Grace and Nature run parallel. Grote elaborates and jpublishes Bentham's Analysis of the Influence of Natural Religion, a vigorous attack on theism. 2592. Philology. Golebrooke founds the Koyal Asiatic Society. 259S. Education. SpiUeke widens the curriculum of the Real-Schule, and leads it to look beyond purely commercial ideals. 2594. Politics. Charles Comte's Traits de L^islation continues and corrects the work of Montesquieu. 2595. Deaths. Canova, Hardenberg, William Herschel, Shelley. 2596. French Ch. Lanjuinais, a Jansenist^ attacks the Jesuits. 1-1323 2597. Science. Arago discovers rotatory magnetism. ^ Faraday liquefies chlorine and other gases. 2598. Art. Ingres' La Source (Paris). Schubert's music to Rosamund. Spohr's oratorio Jessonda. c. 22 338 POLITICS [1823 1669. Portugal. John abrogates the Constitution, but orders the preparation of one on the English model The Queen, however, and Don Miguel, the younger son of the King, prefer absolutism, and lead a revolt against the King, which is suppressed. 1670. America. The Kin^ of Spain begs the aid of the Holy Alliance to reduce the South Amencan Kepublics. Canning suggests to Rush, the American envoy in London, a joint declaration against the expected move of Europe, and informs France that if the Holy Alliance attacks the Republics, England will recognise them. Monroe's Message, com- posed by John Qumcy Adams, declares that ' the American continents are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonisation by an^ European Power.' The Monroe Doctrine becomes an established principle of American policy. Morales capitulates, and Columbia becomes independent 1671. Anstraliaw New South Wales obtains a Constitution. 1672. Asia. Ahmed Khan returns from a pilgrimage to Mecca, and introduces Wahabism among the Mohamedans of India. He establishes a camp on the Punjab frontier, and attacks the Sikhs. 1673. France. A new organ of the Opposition, the Globe news- ^324 Saper, is founded by Thiers and Mignet, and supported by ^ ainte-Beuve, Ampere, Lerminier, Jouffroy, Rdmusat, Duvergier de Hauranne. Artois succeeds, and restores the Jesuits and their rights of educa- tion, revives the laws of sacrilege, compensates the lonigrants, and threatens the principle of equal division. 1674. America. The United States and Russia agree on a line which neither is to cross, and open the Pacific to fishing and navigation by both. Duties are raised firom 25 per cent to 37 per cent. The Spanish, who have won back the greater part of Peru, are finally routed by Bolivar. The country becomes the independent republic of Bolivia, and Bolivar becomes President Canning recognises the independence of the South American Re- publics, thus carrying into execution one of the latest plans of Castlereagh. 1675. Greece. A proposal of the Czar to divide Greece into three Principalities, tributary to the Sultan and garrisoned by the Turks, but autonomous, is not adopted. Ibrahim Pasha is sent by Mehemet, at the request of the Sultan, to take Crete, and overruns the Peloponnesus. The Turkish fleet, however, is destroyed at Mitylene. Byron, who has come to aid the struggle for independence, dies at MissoloughL 1676. Africa. The English are defeated in Ashantee. 1677. Asia. The East India Company takes Rangoon. England restores Sumatra to Holland, and receives Malacca. 1824] CULTURE 339 2599. Philology. Klaproth's Asia Polyglotta. 2600, History. Thiers^ History of the French Revolution. 2601, Education. Jacotot's Enseignement Universel asserts that all children possess equal intelligence, and that Che task of the teacher is rather to stimulate than to instruct. Birkbeck founds the first Mechanics' Institute. 2602. Oeography. An English expedition discovers Lake Chad. 260S, Social. Owing to the efforts of Romilly and Mackintosh, Peel abolishes the death penalty on 100 crimes. Huskisson carries his Reciprocity of Duties Bill, largely modifying the Navigation Acts. Owen plants communistic settlements in America, which, however, quickly fau. The Oxford Union Society is founded. 2604. Death. Ricardo. 2605. Eng. Ch. The Catholic Endish and Irish bishops declare Qg24 that the Popes possess no civil authority. •■ 2606. French Ch. Lamennais visits Kome, is warmly greeted by the Pope, and on his return attacks Gallicanism, and advocates theocracy and the political supremacy of the Pope. He is prosecuted for his Religion consid^r^ dans ses Rapports avec I'Ordre Politique et Civile, and defended by Benyer. 2607. Eng. Lit. Lander's Imaginary Conversations. 2608. Italian Lit. Leopardi's Canzoni. 2609. Science. Liebig establishes a chemical laboratory at Giessen. Von Buch's geological map of Germany. Camot's Puissance motrice dii Feu attempts to determine mathe- maticallv the power of a steam-engine. In later writings he grasps the law of the conservation of energy. Bessel introduces ' Bessel's Functions' into pure mathematics. 2610. Art. The National Gallery is founded in London, with Anger- stein's collection as a nucleus. 2611. Philology. Boeckh begins the Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum. 2612. Philosophy. Herbart's Psychology as a Science rejects the theory of the mind as an aggregate of &culties. Ideas become asso- ciated in groups, the strong recalling the weak. The Westminster Review is founded, Bentham beinff the proprietor and Bowring editor. In the first number James Mill attacks the Edinburgh Rsview. Similar Radical principles are championed by Fon- blanque in the Examiner. 2613. History. Ranke's Latin and Teutonic Nations, 1494-^1519, with an appendix on the sources, inaugurates the critical period of historiography. Clinton's Fasti Hellenic!. 2614. Social. Hume and Huskisson repeal the Combination Laws. 2615. Deaths. Byron, Consalvi, Joubert, Wolf. 22—2 S40 POLITICS [1825 1678. Ireland. The Catholic Association is suppressed for three rione years ; but the work is continued without the name. *- Emancimition resolutions are carried by Burdett in the Commons. Bishop Doyle is examined bv Parliament on the creed of Catholics, and his evidence greatly contributes to remove the objections against Emancipation. 1679. NetherlandB. A movement for independence begins. 1680. Oermany. Bavaria and Wiirtemberg make a commercial treaty, which becomes the nucleus of the ZoUverein. 1681. Hnngsiry. In consequence of the rising discontent the Diet is sdlowed to meet every three years. Szechenyi speaks in Hungarian and founds a Hungarian Academy of Sciences. The demand for the use of the Magyar language excites the resentment of the Slav races. 1682. RuBsia. Nicholas succeeds, after putting down a dangerous revolt in the army, and declares against Western methods and ideas. The Slavophil party, led by Aksakov and Koshelev, rapidly grows. 1683. Greece. Ibrahim besieges Missolonghi, and the Greeks place themselves under the protection of England. 1684. Turkey. Stratford Canning, first cousin of Gfeorge Canning, becomes ambassador at Constantinople. 1685. America. With Monroe's resignation, the 'era of good feeling' ends. In the presidential election, Jackson, the victor of New Orleans, obtains most votes ; but Clay's supporters vote for Quincy Adams, who is consequently elected. Jackson's friends raise the cry of a corrupt bargain. A Congress of South and Central American States is summoned by Bolivar to ranama. Columbia, Peru, Mexico, and Central America ally ; but Bolivar's scheme of a federal army and navv is not adopted. Adams desires to send to take part in the Congress in order to obtain recognition of the Monroe Doctrine. But Congress delays its sanction till the Congress is over. The inhabitants of the 'Banda Oriental' (Montevideo, etc.) revolt against Brazil and found the Republic of Uruguay. England makes commercial treaties with Columbia and Mexico. 1686. Australia. Tasmania becomes a separate colony. 1687. Portugal. The King dies, and his son, Pedro, Emperor of r,gog Brazil, issues a charter, ana, being debarred by the Constitution, L*^^" gives the inheritance to his daughter, Maria. Miguel opposes her, and 1826] CULTUBE 841 2616, Eng. Ch. Thirlwall translates Schleiermacher's Essay on n 325 Luke, and adds a preface, in part composed by Hare, on German *- theology. Hugh James Rose preaches a course of sermons at Cam brid^, denouncing the Protestantism of Germany as anti-Christian. Whately's Peculiarities of the Christian Religion founds the Broad Church treatment of theology. The Earl of Bridp^ewater endows a lectureship on Natural Science as a branch of Christian evidence, which is held by Chalmers, Whewell, Bell, and others. Coleridge's Aids to Reflection base religion on spiritual apprehen- sion, not on ' Evidences.' W. J. Fox, Minister at South Place Chapel, founds the British and Foreign Unitarian Association. 2617, American Ch. Joe Smith, a farmer, publishes the Book of Mormon, which he declares to be a translation from tablets written by the remnants of the ten tribes who migrated to America. 2618, Eng. Lit. Lord Braybrooke edits Pepys' Diary. Macaula^'s Essay on Milton in the Edinburgh Review. Scott is involved in the ruin of his publishers. 2619, Italian Ut. Manzoni's The Betrothed founds the romantic school. Vieusseux edits the Antologia^ a review to which Tommaseo, Mamiani, Romagnosi, and other reformers contribute. 2620, Spanish Lit. Heredia's Poems mark the birth of Spanish- American literature. 2621, Swedish Lit. Tegner's Frithiofe Saga. 2622, Russian Lit. Pushkin's Boris Godounoff founds the historical drama. 2623, Science. Stephenson's railway from Stockton to Darlington is opened. Poulett Scrope's Considerations on Volcanoes. Legendre's Traits des Fonctions EUiptiques. W. E. and E. H. Weber's Wave Theory. 2624, Art. Cornelius frescoes the Ludwigskirche at Munich, and with Ejaulbach revives fresco painting. 2626. Anthropology. FKnt tools and bones *of extinct animals are found in Kent's Cavern, Torquay. 2626. History. Neander's History of the Christian Church. 2627. Economics. Dunoyer's La Libert^ du Travail, an extreme presentation of laissez-faire. 2628. Education. The University of London is founded by Brougham, Joseph Hume, and others, including a number of Dissenters. 2629. Social. All combinations except for the purpose of fixing wages are declared illegal. 2680. Deaths. David, Courier, Richter, St Simon. 26S1. Eng. Ch. Rose preaches at Cambridge on the duties ns26 of the clergy, and founds the conception of modern High Church- '■ manship. 342 POLITICS [1826 Spain equips an expedition, and Canning therefore sends English troops to her aid. 1688. Greece. Missolonghi falls after a year's siege. Canning makes a secret convention with the Tsar, to whom Wellington is sent, to obtain autonomy for Greece. Both Powers disclaim the intention of seeking any territorial or commercial advantages. France joins, but Austria and Prussia oppose intervention. The Holy Alliance is virtually dissolved by the action of Nicholas. 1689. Turkey. The Janissaries mutiny and are massacred. This occurrence leaves the Sultan without an army, and compels him to accept the whole of the Tsar's demands. The Convention of Acker- mann confirms the Treaty of Bucharest. Russia is to occupy the fortresses on the East coast of the Black Sea, Russian ships to have the right of entering all Turkish waters, and Servia to elect its prince and manage its internal affairs. The princes of Moldavia and Wallachia are to be elected by the nobles for seven years, the Sultan not to refuse confirmation nor depose without consent of the Tsar. The princes are also enjoined to pay attention to Russian representations. Russia declares war against Persia. 1690. Asia. The East India Company takes Assam. 1691. England. Lord Liverpool resigns ; Canning becomes Prime n 927 Minister, and gives office to Palmerston and a few other Whigs. ^ Wellington, Peel and Eldon refuse to serve with him (April), and withdraw. Cannbg dies four months later, and is succeeded by GodericL 1692. France. The National Guards are broken up for demanding the charter and a free press. VillMe creates 76 new Peers and dissolves the Chambers; but the candidates of the Government are routed, and VillMe is forced to resi^. 1693. Portugal. Miguel becomes Regent. 1694. Greece. A treaty is made by England, France, and Russia^ pledging themselves to offer mediation and to demand an armistice, Greece to become autonomous. Secret articles declare that if the Sultan refuses mediation, the Powers shall themselves take steps to obtain an armistice, if possible without recourse to arms (July). Ibrahim takes the Acropolis, and receives large reinforcements. The Sultan, encouraged by Mettemich, re&ses the mediation of the Powers. Lord Cochrane becomes Admiral of the Greek fleet, and Richard Church General of the land forces. The allied fleets, conmianded by Codrington, call on Ibrahim to cease hostilities, and enter the harbour of Navarino to enforce submission ; the Turkish fleet fires, and, after a sharp battle, is destroyed (Oct). Ibrahim is recalled. The battle is described by Wellington as an untoward event, and, on the death of Canning, h^ 1827] CULTURE 343 £632. French Ch. Montlosier, a Gallican, attacks the Jesuits, the Congregation, and the non-observance of the Articles of 1682. £633. American Ch. Hicks, a Quaker, denies the divinity of Christ, and leaves the Society with many others. £634. Bug. Lit. Disraeli's Vivian Grey and Bulwer's Pelham introduce the ' dandy school.' £635. French Lit. De Vigny's Cinq-Mars. £636. Qerman Lit. Heine's Pictures of Travel. Hauff's Lichtenstein. Lachmann edits the Nibelun^enlied texts. £637. Art. Schadow's arrival ushers in the golden age of the Dusseldorf school of painting. £638. Science. Elie de Beaumont and Dufr^noy construct a geological map of France. Nobili's galvanometer proves the existence of an electric current in animals. Dutrochet studies the respiration of plants. Ohm's Law asserts that the electromotive force, divided by the resistance, equals the strength of the current. Tiedemann and Gmelin study digestion. Raffles founds the Zoological Society and Gardens in London. £639. Economics. Rau, Hermann and Nebenius develope the ideas of Adam Smith and the 'classic' Political Economy. Van Thunen's Isolated State investigates the problems connected with the market and wages. £640. Politics. Saint Simon's Nouveau Christianisme outlines a social system afterwards adopted by his pupil Comte. £641. Law. Kent's Uommentaries on American Law. £64£. History. The Monumenta GermanisB Historica, planned by Stein and edited by Pertz, begin to appear. £643. Deaths. Adams, Heber, Jefferson, Oberlin, Raffles. £644^ Eng. Oh. Keble's Christian Year. ^327 Heber's Hymns. '• £64S. German Ch. Hengstenberg's Eirchenzeitung revives Lutheran orthodoxy. £646. Eng. Lit. The brothers Hare issue Guesses at TrutL £647. French Lit. Victor Hugo's Preface to his drama Cromwell explains the romantic movement. Stendhal's Racine et Shakspere maintains that all new works are romantic, and become classic with i^e. £648. Italian Lit. Leonaidi publishes his Moral Works. £649. Danish Lit. Heiberg edits the Copenhagen Flying Post £650. American Lit. Dana's The Buccaneer. £651, Science. Von Baer's Origin of the Ovum founds scientific Em- bryology, and shews that all ova are at first identical His work is continued by Rudolph Wagner. Green states his theorem concerning ' the potential,' of which he 344 POLITICS [1827 policy is reveised, and Bussia is left to continue the combat single- nanded. The annihilation of the Turkish fleet, however, completely alters the conditions of the struggle. 1695. AMoa. Waghom organises transport between Cairo and Suez. 1696. Asia. A diq>uted succession leads to British intervention in Bhurtpore. 1697. En^and. Goderich resigns (Jan.), and Wellington and M323 Peel take office, leaving Emancipation an open question. Hus- ^ kisson, Palmerston, Lamb^ and other Ganumgites resign, the ministry becoming purel)r Toiy. Russell carries tne Repeal of the Corporation and Test Acts, ad- mitting Nonconformists to Parliament, though retaining the declaration against Transubstantiation. 1698. Ireland. The Catholic Association is revived, and O'Connell is elected for Clare. His election is regarded as rendering Emancipation inevitable. 1699. France. Marti^ac forms a moderate ministry, which, however, is distrusted by the Ein^, and receives no support from the Liberals.^ 1700. Portugal. Miguel seizes the crown and revokes the Constitution. 1701. RoBflia. The two vears' war with Persia ends, Russia obtaining part of Armenia and forbidding Persia to possess armed ships on the Caspian. 1702. Greece. Capodistrias is appointed president of Greece for seven years, and is informed that Greece must remain tributary to the Sultan. A French army is sent to expel Ibrahim from the Morea, and Capo- distrias clears the country north of the Gulf of Corinth. 1703. Turkey. ^ The Sultan summons the Mohamedan world to an attack on Russia, and expels the Christian residents in Constantinople. The Tsar declares war (April), and takes Varna, Ears, and Erzerum. The failure to take Silistria, however, encourages Metternich to another attempt to form a coalition against Russia. 1704. America. The ' Tariff of Abominations' imposes high duties on raw materials and on manufactured goods. In an Exposition and Protest, drawn up by Calhoun, South Carolina suggests a convention to declare the Act nml and void. Webster foretells a Southern Con- federacv. Jackson is elected President, representing a nationalist democracy, and Calhoun Vice-President, Van Buren is chosen Secretary of State. 1705. Africa. The African Company being dissolved, 1821, the Govern- ment grants the Gold Coast to London merchants, who create the Gold Coast Protectorate. 1828] CULTURE 345 proves the chief properties, and applies the results to electricity and magnetism. Gauss arrives independently at the same results, 1839. ^65£, Art. Strauss 'Eettenbriicke' waltzes. ^653. History. Hallam's Constitutional History of England. ^654, Education. A Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge is founded by Brougham and his friends. ^655, Philology. W. Humboldt's Letter to lUmusat on grammatical forms. ^666. Deaths. Beethoven, William Blake, Foscolo, Fresnel, La Place, Pestalozzi, Volta. ^657, Eng. Ch. Pusey replies to Rose's attack on German ^1323 theology. *• Milman's History of the Jews is hotly attacked. i^658, Oerman Ch. UUmann founds the journal, Theologische Studien, as an or^an of the disciples of Schleiermacher. Gunther^s Introduction to Speculative Theology is accused of denying Christianity. S659, Eng. Lit. The Athenadum newspaper is founded. Garlyle's Essay on Goethe calls attention to German Literature, hitherto studied only by William Taylor, Coleridge, and Crabb Robinson. f^60. French Lit. Villemain lectures at the Sorbonne on literature. S^661, Science. Wohler produces urea, an organic compound, from an inorganic substance, anmionium cyanite, thus founding organic chemistry. Abel discusses the higher transcendents of multiple periodicity, and founds the study of elliptic functions. Cuvier's Histoire naturelle des Poissons. Brongniart's Histoire des V^^tauz Fossiles. £662. Art. Sontag and Malibran make their ddbut. Ainmuller becomes director of the new painted glass manu£EU^ry in Munich, and works with transmitted light. 2663. Philosophy. Herbart's General Metaphysics asserts that the unit of beinff is the monad, the states of which are ideas and their relations, and which possesses no power of self-development. Combe's Constitution of Man popularises phrenology and the idea of the connexion between mind and oody. £664. Philology. Noah Webster's English Dictionary. 2665. History. Guizot lectures at the Sorbonne. Napier's History of the Peninsular War. £666. Law. Jacob Grimm's Legal Antiquities. £667, Politics. Coleridge's Constitution of Church and State maintains that the National Churm should embrace the whole 'spiritual power' of the nation. Bazaid and Enfantin explain and develope the teaching of St Simon. £668. Social. A sliding scale duty on com is adoj^ted, 36/8 when the price is 50/, decreasing as it rises and increasing as it fails. 346 POLITICS [1829 1706. En^and. Wellington and Peel propose Catholic Emanci- rigog pation, and overcome the Bang's resistance. ^ Hume's motion for a Committee to consider the repeal of the Com Laws obtains 12 votes. 1707. Ireland. O'Connell is re-elected for Gare, and begins to agitate for repeal. The Catholic Association is suppressed. 1708. fVance. Martignac is dismissed, and Polignac forms an ultra* royalist ministry. LcSayette leads an agitation against the Govern- ment. 1709. Germany. Prussia joins the Zollverein. 1710. Spain. The Ein^ marries for a fourth time, and issues a prag- matic sanction, abolishmg the Salic Law. The King's brother, Don Carlos, protests. A daugnter, Isabella, is bom, and is recognised by the King as his heiress. 1711. Portugal. Chartists and Constitutionalists revolt against Miguel and declare for Maria. 1712. Greece. Russia, England, and France decide on the complete independence of Greece, and resolve to place a prince of one of ^e lesser royal houses on the throne. 1713. Turkey. The Russians cross the Balkans, take Silistria, and threaten Adrianople, where a treaty is signed. The Sultan recognises the independence of Greece. Russia resigns her conquests, except some islands at the mouth of the Danube and a strip of territory m Asia Minor. The Sultan is to pay a large indemnitv. Moldavia and Wallachia become virtually independent, pajdnc a fixed sum annually to the Porte, which withdraws its garrisons. The Hospodars are to bie appointed for life. The navigation of the Danube becomes free, and vessels of neutral powers may pass through the Dardanelles. Polignac and Charles X. propose a partition of the Ottoman Empire, and a rearrangement of Europe. 1714. America. Jackson expels a large number of officials and substi- tutes his own friends and supporters, thus inaugurating the Spoils system. He neglects his official ministers for a group of personal friends, known as the Kitchen Cabinet. 1715. Australasia. Captain Stirling founds Western Australia. Gibbon Wakefield's Letter from Sydney lays down the principles afterwards elaborated in his Art of Colonisation, urging the cessation of free grants of land, the regulation of the volume of emigration according to the needs of the colony, the maintenance of proportion in the sexes, and tiie systematic survey of territory. 1716. En^and. The Birmingham Political Union leads the cry rigoA for reform, but Wellington declares that the constitution admits ^ ^^ of no improvement. He is defeated, and resigns (Nov.). Grey forms a ministry, including Russell, Althorp, Melbourne, Brougham, and Palmerston, and stipulates that reform shall be a Cabinet measure. 1717. France. The Liberals form a majority in the new Parliament, led by Royer-Collard and Guizot, and carry votes of want of confidence. 1830] CULTURE 847 S669. Oermon Ch. Nitzsch's System of Christian Doctrine, 1-^^29 an orthodox Lutheran presentation deeply influenced by Schleier- ^ nuusher. ^670. American Ch. The first Catholic Provincial Council is held. iS671. Asiatic Ch. Suttee is forbidden in India. 267^, French Lit. Sainte-Beuve's Joseph Delorme, Hugo's Orientales, M^rim^'s Charles IX., and Dumas' Henri III. et sa Cour, apply the principles of romanticism. iB673. Polish Lit. Mickiewicz' Conrad Wallenrod, a poem on the struggles of the Poles against the Teutonic Knights. 2674. Norwegian Lit. Wergeland's Poems introduce romanticism. £675. Science. Jacobi's Theory of Elliptic Functions. Gauss enunciates the principle of least constraint. Lobatchewsky continues the study of metageometry inaugurated by Gauss, and declares that the Euclidean axiom of parallels cannot he deduced from the others. The same result is reached independently by Bolyai, 1832. Graham's Law states that the diffusion rate of gases is inversely as the square root of their density. Nicol lays the foundation of microsconical petrology by improving the optical methods of investigation of rocks. The Liverpool and Man^ester railway is opened, Stephenson's engine moving 35 miles an hour. 2676. Art. Chopin's d^but as a pianist. Rossini's William Tell. Solger's Aesthetics, influenced by Schelling and Herbart, represent beauty as an immediate revelation of God. 2677. Philosophy. James Mill's Analysis of the Human Mind developes Hartley's doctrine of association. Hajnilton's article on the Philosophy of the Conditioned, in the Edinburgh Review, criticises the opinions of Cousin. 2678. Fmlology. Lobeck's Aglaopnamus replies to Creuzer and declares that the Mysteries possessed no important esoteric knowledge. Dobrovsky's Grammar of the Czech Language. 2679. Education. Thomas Arnold becomes Head Master of Rugby. 2680. Social. The first Temperance societies are founded in England. Peel creates a new police for London. Lady Blessington and Count D'Orsay open their salon in London. 2681. Deaths. Abel, Davy, F. Schlegef, Young. 2682. Eng. Ch. Mary Campbell of Rosneath begins to speak nooQ with tongues, and cases shortly occur in Irving's congregation in ^ London. 2683. French Ch. The Congregation is broken up, the bishops cease to sit in the House of Peers, and the new Government proclaims that Catholicism is no longer the State religion. Lamennais founcb a journal L'Avenir, aided by Montalembert, Lacordaire, Gerbet, Salinis, Rohrbacher, and advocates a free press and 348 FOLiTfCS [1830 The Chamber is dissolved, but its successor proves even more hostile. The King tfierefore issues Ordiuances, dissolving the Chamber, sup- S pressing the Liberal papers, and raising the property qualification July 25). The Revolution of the ' Three Davs ' (July 27—9) takes Skce, and the Ein^ dismisses Polignac and withdraws the Ordinances, (eanwhile a provisional government is formed by Lafayette, Lafitte, and Casimir-P^rier, who, with Thiers, invite Louis Philippe to become Lieutenant-General till the meeting of the Chamber. OrWns assures Charles of his fidelity ; but the King and the Dauphin resign in favour of the Duke of Bordeaux, and ask Orl^ns to be Regent A rumour spreads that Charles meditates an attack on Paris, and a mob marches to Rambouillet. Charles flies to England, and Orleans becomes King. A new Charter is issued. The press is freed, hereditary peerage is abolished, direct election is restored, the franchise is lowered, and the King is forbidden to suspend laws, to appoint extraordinary tribunals, or to employ foreign troops. The new ministry includes Lafitte, Casimir-POTer, Guizot, and De Brodie. 1718. Belgium. Relying on French support the Belgians rise against the King, and the Dutch troops are expelled. The provisional govern* ment proclaims independence, and summons a congress, which confirms the declaration and pronounces for a monarchy. A conference of the great Powers, to whom the King appeals, meets in London, and, largely owing to the influence of Palmerston, recognises the claims of Belgium to independence. Louis Philippe promises not to accept the crown, nor to allow the formation of a republic. 1719. Germany. The Duke of Bninswick is expelled (Sept.), and risings occur in Rhenish Prussia, Saxony, Hanover, and Hesse-Cassel. Saxony grants a Constitution, and concessions are made in several of the smaller principalities. The Toung Germany movement revives. 1 720. Switzerland. The oligarchy in certain of the large towns is over- thrown, and constitutional reforms are introduced. 1721. Poland. Owing to breaches of the constitution since 1819, and to the activity of secret societies, a rising takes place at Warsaw, the Russians are massacred, and Adam Czartoryski becomes head of the provisional government. Terms are proposed to Nicholas, but are refused. 1722. Greece. A Conference in London defines the frontier of Greece. A constitution is granted, and the crown is ofifered to Leopold of Saxe- Coburg, who refuses it. 1723. Turkey. Milosch is confirmed as Prince of Servia, under the obligation to pay tribute to the Sultan and to maintain a Turkish gamson in Belgrade. 1724. America. In a debate on the disposal of public lands, Daniel Webster replies to Hayne's vindication of State Rights, and declares that the Constitution is not a compact^ but an instrument formed by the ' People of the United States.' After several attempts to throw off the authority of Bolivar, Columbia breaks up into New Granada (Columbia), Venezuela, and Ecuador, and Bolivar withdraws from public life and dies. 1830] CULTQRE 849 education, and cessation of the subsidy for the clergy. Montalembert and Lacordaire open a school, which is quickly suppressed. S684' German Ch. Gerlach denounces Oesenius and Wegscheider of Halle as non-Christians. f^685. Asiatio Ch. Rammohnn Roy founds the first Brahmo Somaj, or Theistic Church, in Calcutta. 2686. Italian Ch. Rosmini founds the Institute of Charity. i^687. Eng. Lit. CarleWs Traits and Stories of the Irish Peasantry. i^688, Frenoh Lit. Victor Hugo's Hemani is acted, and Gautier, his disciple, publishes his first poems. M^im^e's Colomba. Thiers founds a review, the National, and is shortly succeeded in the editorship by Armand Carrel. £689. German Lit. Anastasius Gi'un's (Auersperg) The Last Knight. £690. Science. Robert Brown studies structural and physiological botany. LyelFs Principles of Geology continue the work of Hutton and enforce the doctrine of Uniformitarianism. Audubon's Birds of America. G. St Hilaire and Cuvier discuss the evolution or creation of animal types. Vaughan Thompson discovers that barnacles are degenerate Crus- tacea, and studies the group Polyzoa. £691, Art. Ranch begins his 20 years' work on the statue of Frederick the Great, Berlin. King Ludwig of Bavaria commissions Elenze to build the Walhalla, on the model of the Parthenon, near Regensburg, and fills it with the busts of distinguished Germans. During the same period, Schinkel designs the Museum at Berlin in Classical style. Auber's Fra Diavolo. £69£. Philosophy. Comte's Philosophie Positive declares that Thought has passed through a theolo^cal and a metaphysical stage, and has now entered a positive or scientific stage, in which the sciences are related and classified, and a sociology, or science of society, is reached. Rosmini's Origin of Ideas introduces Kantianism into Italy. Mackintosh's Dissertation on Ethical Pliilosophy supports Intuition- ism, but adopts the Benthamite view of utility as a test of rightness. £698, Philology. Nitzsch leads a reaction against Wolf and declares Homer to have founded the Epopee, i.e., to have blended old songs into an epic. Grote adopts this view, but adds that Homer's work, the ' Achilleid,' has been developed into an Iliad. Freytag's Arabic Lexicon. £694. Politics. Stahl's Philosophy of Law from a Historical Standpoint sketches the Christian state ana attacks the conception of Naturrecht as involving too much human freedom. Joufiroy defends the conception of Droit Naturel. £695. Law. Speranski codifies the Russian law. £696, Education. King's College, London, is founded for members of the Established Church. 350 POLITICS [1830 1725. AMoa. French troops land in Algiers to avenge an insult to their ambassador, and take Algiers. Constant fighting follows with Abdul Kader in East Algeria. 1726. Asia. Mysore is taken under British administration. 1727. En^and. Kussell introduces a Reform Bill, to abolish nooi 60 boroughs, and to deprive 46 others of one member, the seats '- being given to the counties and the great towns, eight to Scotland and five to Ireland. In the counties the franchise is given to £10 copy- holders and £50 leaseholders, and in the boroughs to £10 householders (March). The second reading is carried by one, and on an amendment in committee against the reduction of members for England and Wales it is withdrawn and Parliament is dissolved. A great Whig majority returns, and the Bill, slightly amended, is passed, with the acidition of the Chandos amendment, giving the franchise in counties to £50 tenants at will, but is rejected by the Lords. Riots break out at Bristol and in London, and the Bill is again introduced (Dec). Joseph Hume advocates the representation of the colonies. 1728. Belgium. The London Conference determines that Holland shall return to the boundaries of 1790, with the addition of Luxemburg, and that Belgium shall pay half the Dutch debt. These terms are rejected bv Belgium, which elects Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, the English canaidate. The great Powers grant Belgium more favourable terms, which, how- ever, are rejected by the Dutch, who invade Belgium, but retire on the appearance of a French army and an English fleet. The London Con- ference draws up a third plan, dividing Luxemburg, and increasing Belgium's contribution to the debt. Be^um accepts these terms, and is recognised by all the Powers but Russia. Its neutrality is guaranteed by the Powers. 1729. Italy. A revolution breaks out in Modena, in the Papal States, where Louis Napoleon joins the insurgents, and in Parma. The rulers, however, are restored by the Austrian troops. The direct male line of Savoy ends with the death of Charles Felix, and the crown passes to Charles Albert. Mazzini urges the new King to fulfil the promise of his youtL 1730. Poland. Nicholas is deposed, and a Russian army enters Poland (Feb.), and after meeting with a heroic resistance at Grochow and Ostrolenka takes Warsaw and Cracow. Many thousand Poles are sent to Siberia. 1731. Denmark. Frederick VI. creates legislative chambers in each province, to discuss new ordinances and approve taxes. 1732. Greece. Capodistrias is assassinated. 1733. America. The Liberator newspaper is established by Lloyd Garrison in Boston, urging immediate abolition of slavery without com- pensation. 1831] CULTUBE 851 2697. ^ Geography. The African Association becomes the Geographical Society. The Brothers Lander, sent out by the English (Government, trace the Niger from Busa to the sea. Sturt traces the course of the Murray. 2698. Social. Cholera first appears in Europe. £699. Death. Fourier. 2700. Scotch Oh. McLeod Campbell is deposed from tlie ministry riooi for his views on the universality of the Atonement ^ 2701. American Oh. William Miller founds the Adventists. 2702. Bng. Lit. Peacock's Crotchet Castle. 2703. French Lit. Victor Hugo's Notre Dame. Stendhal's Rouge et Noir. Buloz founds the Revue des Deux Mondes. 2704. German Lit. Heine settles in Paris. 2705. Russian Lit. Pushkin's Eugene Oni^guine. 2706. Science. Murchison and Sedgwick begin to stud^p^ strata, and differentiate the oldest fossiliferous formations as Cambrian, Silurian, and Devonian, thus completing paleozoic stratigraphy. Till this time nothing is known of the succession lower than the Old Red Sandstone. Melloni constructs the thermo-multiplier for measuring invisible heat rays. Faraday obtains electric currents from magnetism. The British Association for Science is founded. 2707. Art. Bellini's La Somnambula. Delaroche's Princes in the Tower founds the historic school of French painting (Louvre). The works of the Barbizon School, Rousseau, Corot, Diaz, Dupr^, Daubigny, are exhibited in the Salon. David D' Angers' sculptures in the Pantheon and Bary^'s first sculptures of animals are exhibited. 2708. Philosophy. Hegel dies, and his work is continued by Gabler, Ganz, Hinrichs, Michelet, Daub, Marheineke, Vatke, Rosenkranz. It is criticised in the s{)here of logic by Weisse, Beneke, Stahl, Trendelen- burg, L H. Fichte ; in theology by Strauss, Feuerbach, Fechner, Bruno Bauer. 2709. Philology. Lachmann's edition of the New Testament first throws aside the Textus Receptus. 2710. Anthropology. Pritchard's Eastern Origin of the Celtic Na- tions declares the Celts allied by language with the Slav, German, and Pelasgian stocks. 2711. Education. Stanley founds a school system in Ireland, and a grant of £30,000 is made. Physical science and modem languages are adopted in the curriculum of the Jesuits. 2712. History. Bohmer collects and edits the Regesta of the mediaeval Emperors from Conrad to Henry VII. 352 POLITICS [1831 1734. Asia. Mehemet Ali invades Syria as a stepping-stone to Con- stantinople, and Acre is besieged by Ibrahim. 1735. Australia. Lord Ripon issues regulations imposing a minimum price on unoccupied lands, i.e. belonging to the Crown. 1736. En^and. The Reform Bill passes the Commons (March), 1-^^32 and the Lords pass the second reading.^ An amendment to ^ postpone the discussion of the disfranchising clauses is inserted by Lyndhurst The Ministiy asks the King to create 50 new Peers, and, on his refusal, resigns. Wellington offers to take office and introduce a partial reform Bill, but Peel refuses to join him. Orey returns, the Km^ promises to create Peers, if necessary, and Wellington persuades his niends to allow the passage of the Bill (June). Fifty-six boroughs are abolished, and 30 lose one member. Sixty-five seats are given to the counties, two to 22 towns, and one to 21. The qualification proposed in 1831 is retained. 1737. France. Legitimists rise in La Vend^ and republicans in Paris, but are suppressed, and the Duchesse de Berry is arrested. The death of the Duke of Reichstadt also strengthens the throne. 1738. Belgimn. The Dutch King rejects the proposals of the London Conference. A French army takes Antwerp, and an English fleet blockades the Dutch coast. Leopold marries the daughter of Louis Philippe. 1739. Germany- The Diet forbids popular assemblies and festivals, and promises military aid to any sovereign threatened by revolution. 1740. Italy. A new revolt breaks out m the Romagna, and Austrian troops again intervene (Jan.). To appea|Se the outcry against letting Austria occupy the Romagna, Louis rnilippe seizes Ancona. 1741. Switzerland. The Siebener-Concordat is formed by the Pro- testant and liberal Cantons, and the Samer Bund by the conservative and Catholic Cantons. 1742. Poland. Poland is declared a Russian province, with a separate administration, and Alexander's constitution is cancelled. 1743. Hungary. Szechenyi compels the nobles to contribute to the building of a bridge to unite Buda and PestL 1744. Portugal. Pedro, late Emperor of Brazil, lands in Portugal to support his daughter against Miguel, who is defeated. 1745. Greece. Otto of Bavaria accepts the Greek crown. 1746. Turkey. Samos becomes a principality, guaranteed by France, England and Russia, under the sovereignty of Turkey. The Sultan declares war against Mehemet Ali, who has defeated the Pasha of Acre, but is himself defeated. 1747. America. Clay carries a new tariff, returning substantially to the rates of 1824. South Carolina, led by Calhoun, declares the Acts of 1828 and 1832 null and void, and forbids the payment of duties. 18S2] CULTURE 353 271S. Eoonomics. Richard Jones shews that Bicardo's theory does not apply to peasant rents. 27H. Social. An experiment in communal fanning is made at Ralahine in Ireland ; but the land is shortly seized by the creditors of the landlord. 2715. Deaths. Bilderdyck, Gneisenau, Robert Hall, Hegel, Hermes, Erause, Niebuhr, Stein. ^16. Eng. Ch. Palmer's Origines Liturgicae prepares the way riooo for the Oxford Movement; and Rose founds the British Magazine *- for the defence of High Church principles. Hampden's Bampton Lectures contend that our theology is inherited from scholasticism, and that 'an atmosphere of mist' parts us from primitive trutL Dr Arnold's essay on Church Reform advocates the inclusion of Dissenters in the Church. 2717. French Ch. Lamennais' ideas are condemned in the bull, Mirari Vos. Montalembert and Lacordaire submit, but Lamennais revolts. 2718. German Ch. Mohler's S3rmbology insists on the impossibility of reunion, attacks the theory of justification by faith and asserts that Protestantism, though bom of a real need, has degenerated. He is answered by Baur, Nitzsch and Marheineke. The Gustavus Adolphus Society is founded to combat Catholicism ; but the strict Lutherans hold aloof. 2719. Church Hist. Gregory XVL, enraged by the new Belgian Con- stitution, issues an Encyclical condemning freedom of conscience and of the press. 2720. Eng. Lit. Tennyson publishes the Lotos-Eaters, Oenone, the Palace of Art^ the Dream of Fair Women and other poems. 2721. French Lit. Georges Sand's Indiana, her first great novel. 2722. German Lit. Goethe's Faust, part 2. 2723. Italian Lit. Silvio Pellico's My Imprisonment. 272^. Norwegian Lit. Welhaven attacks Wergeland from a conserva- tive standpoint, and satirises the extravagances of romanticism. 2725. Science. Gauss anticipates the theory of equivalence of heat. Gauss measures the earth's magnetic force. Joseph Henry discovers electrical self-induction. Steiner^s Mutual Dependence of Geometrical Figures founds synthetic geometry. Marshall Hall discovers the ' reflex action' of some nerve centres simultaneously with J. v. Mliller. De la B^che obtains funds from the Board of Ordnance to colour Ordnance maps geologically. 2726. Art. Grisi's dJbut in Paris. Philippon, Henri Monnier and Gavami found French caricature* 2727. Philosophy. Hegel's Philosophy of Religion is printed. 2728. Law. Austin's Province of Jurisprudence Determined reaches a 0. 23 354 POLITICS [1832 Jackson issues a nallification proclamation, condemning the doctrine of states' rights, and orders a fleet and troops to Charleston, and obtains the Force Bill from Congress. The nullification ordinances are in con- sequence suspended. England occupies the Falkland Islands. 1748. En^and. Resolutions condemning the Com Laws are [1833 rejected in the Commons. Grote's motion for the ballot is rejected. A Judicial Committee of the Privy Council is formed. 1749. Ireland. Stanley carries a Bill for trials in disturbed districts by court-martial, on the ground of systematic intimidation of juries. Ten Bishoprics are suppressed, and their revenues are applied to make up church cess, which is abolished. 1750. Belgimn. A preliminary treaty terminates hostilities. 1751. Germany. The Tsar, the Emperor of Austria and the Crown- Prince of Prussia form the League of Munchengratz to guarantee each other's rights in Poland and to counteract the liberalising tendencies of England and France. The King of Hanover grants a Constitution. A rising at Frankfort (April) is followed by the introduction of an Austro-Prussian garrison, and new laws against the press and Uni- versities. The ZoUverein is adopted by all the German states. 1752. Spain. Ferdinand leaves the crown to his daughter Isabella, aged tluree, and Christina acts as Regent. The Regency is recognised by England and France. Don Carlos at once claims, and is supported by the Basques and by the Church. Christina is therefore forced to gain the liberals by signing the Estatuto Real, establishing two chambers chosen by indirect election. French and English volunteer * legions' are formed to support Christina. 1 753. Portugal. Saldanha defeats the Miguelites by land, and Charles Napier destroys Miguel's fleet 1754. Turkey. Mehemet Ali is compelled by Russian intervention to cease hostilities, but by the Peace of Kutaya receives the government . of Syria and Egypt (April). The Sultaii in return signs the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi with Russia, which promises aid when required, secretly binding himself to close the Dardanelles to foreign war-sliips when tiie Tsar is at war (July). 1755. America. Disliking the Bank, which is managed by his oppo- nents, Jackson removes all Government deposits to local banks. 1756. Asia. The dominion of the East India Company is confirmed for 20 years ; but its monopoly of the Chinese trade is abolished. A legal member is added to the Governor's Council, and a penal code is drafted under the direction of Macaulay. 1833] CULTURE 355 pure science of positive law and classifies institutions irrespective of their origin and justification. ^^9, SociaL Oeipital puniBhment for forgery, coining, horse-stealing, sheep-stealing, and sacrilege is abolished. ^SO. Deaths. Bentham, ChampoUion, Guvier, Gentz, Goethe, Erause, Mackintosh, Scott. ^Sl, Eng. Oh. Eeble's Assize Sermon on National Apostasy riooo denounces the suppression of Irish bishoprics, and is afterwardb ^ declared by Newman to have inaugurated the Oxford Movement. A conference takes place at Rose's house at Hadlei^h, and the Tracts for the Times begin to appear. Newman becomes Vicar of St Mary's. The Congregational Union adopts a confession and discipline. Nonconformists are allowed to celebrate marriages in their chapels, and Quakers to substitute an affirmation for an oath. 27S2. iVench Ch. The Abb^ Bautain's Philosophie du Christianisme, declaring that reason cannot reveal God, is condemned by Home. Traditionalism is taught by Ubaghs in Belgium, Donoso Cortes in Spain, and Ventura in Italy. ^33. Church Hist. The Church of Greece declares itself independent. 2734. Eng. Lit. Carlyle's Sartor Resartus appears in Eraser's Magazine. 2735. French Lit. The Academic des Sciences Morales et Politiques is revived. Jauin becomes theatrical critic of the Journal des D^bats. 2736. Swedish Lit. Runeberg's The Elk-hunters, an epic. 2737. Science. Faraday discovers the law of electro-chemical equiva- lents. Weber and Gauss construct an electric telegraph. 2738. Art. Rude's Neapolitan Fisher Boy. Ivanof paints the Appearance of the Messiah among the People. 2739. Philology. Bonp's Comparative Grammar first rally reveals the relationship of the different Indo-European, languages. Gresenius' Lexicon Hebraicum. Pott's Studies in the Indo-Germanic Languages bases etjrmology on phonology. 2740. Law. Edward Livingston's Code of Criminal Law and Procedure. 274^. Education. Guizot establishes schools in every French Commune. The first government grant is made to English schools. 2742, Social. By the efforts of Fowell Buxton, Zachary Macaulay, Wilberforce and others, slavery is abolished throughout the British Empire by 20 millions being granted in compensation. Children under nine are excluded from cotton mills, and Inspectors are appointed. A National Trades' Union is organised by Owen and Fielden, who urge a general strike for 8 hours. The money, however, is lost in several small strikes, and the association collapses, 1834. 274s. Deaths. Legendre, Rammohun Roy, Wilberforce. 23—2 356 POLITICS [18S4 1757. En^and. Stanley, Graham and Lord Ripon resign on rioo4 a proposal to appropriate further revenues of the Irish Church *- (ifay). Lord Grey, finding himself in ^wing discord with his party, also resigns, and Melbourne forms a Cabinet. But when Lord Althorp, leader of the Commons, becomes Earl Spencer by his father's death (Nov.), the King seizes the opportunity to dismiss the Ministry. Peel, who is staying in Rome, is appointed Prime Minister, and, in an address to his constituents at Tamworth, declares for moderate reform. Pahnerston forms a Quadruple Alliance with France, Spain and Portugal, to prevent the defeat of constitutionalism in Spain and Portugal. Six Dorsetshire labourers are sentenced to seven years' transporta- tion for administering an oath. 1758. Ireland. O'Connell's motion for the repeal of the Union is defeated by 523 to 38. 1759. Italy. I^azzini founds Toung Europe, and a;n Italian, a German and a Polish section are organised. He also organises a raid into Savoy from Geneva. 1760. Spain. The Carlist war begins, and the Queen receives promise of support from England and France. The Basque provinces, m their desire to escape centralisation, support Don Carlos. 1761. Portugal. Bv the Treaty of Evoramente, Maria is recessed, and Miguel undertakes to quit rortugal and renounce his claim in con- sideration of a pension. 1762. Svidtzerland. The Confederate Assembly dissolves the Samer Bund. 1763. Hungary. The Diet of Transylvania, which has not been sum- moned since 1811, attacks the Court and is dissolved, and Wesselenyi, the leader of the opposition, is exiled. 1764. Australasia. A South Australian Association is formed by Buller, Grote, Molesworth, Torrens, to carry out the ideas of Gibbon Wakefield. The first emigrants settle, 1836. 1765. England. Though the Conservatives gain in the election, no^ Peel finds himself in a minority in the new rarliament, and the '- Whigs make the * Lichfield House Compact ' with O'Connell. Peel is outvoted and resigns, after four months of office, and Melbourne succeeds, with Russell as leader of the House (April). By the Municipal Corporations Bill, the Mayor and Corporation are to be elected by the ratepayers. London is excepted from tue operation of the bill, the investigation of its history and circumstances being incomplete. 1766. Prance. Fieschi attempts the King's life, and the 'Laws of September' to gag the press and control political trials are passed. 1767. Germany. The Diet forbids the publication of tne works of Heine and Borne and of other writers of the Young Germany school. 1836] CULTURE S57 ^44- Eng-Oh. The Lords defeat the admission of nonconformists [-1004 to University degrees. '' ^4^. Scotcn Gh. Chalmers carries a Veto Act in the (General Assembly, giving the people the veto on an unacceptable candidate. The Court of Session and House of Lords support the right of patrons and rejected presentees in the Auchterarder case. 2746. Portuguese Ch. The monasteries are suppressed. ^47, Eng. Lit. Henry Taylor^s drama, Philip van Artevelde. ^48. French Lit. Balzac's P^re Goriot. Lamennais' Paroles d'un Crovant, a theistic and socialistic rhapsody. 2749. Russian Lit. Bielinski begins his criticisms of Russian lite- rature. ^50, Polish Lit. Mickiewicz' poem, Thaddeus, sketches Polish Life. ^51. Science. John Herschel reaches the Cape of Good Hope and commences his four years' survey of the southern heavens. Dumas discovers the Law of Substitution. Faraday discovers electric self-induction. Milne-Edwards' Histoire Naturelle des Crustac^s. Dum^ril's Histoire Naturelle des Reptiles. Ehrenberg investigates the growth of coral reefs. Schwann discovers the envelope of the nerve-fibres ('Schwann's sheath'), and studies muscular contractility. Hamilton enunciates a principle for obtaining the equations of motion in dynamics. 2752. Art. Meissonier's Chess Party. Schumann's Symphonic Studies. 275S, Philology. Csoma Eorosi's Tibetan Dictionary and Grammar. 2754, History. Bwicroft's History of the United States. 2755, Social. The New Poor Law, framed on the Report of Senior, Blomfield, and Sumner, forbids out-door relief. 2756, Deaths. Coleridge, La&yette, Lamb, Malthus, Schleiermacher. 2757. Eng. Ch. Wiseman returns to Endand, and lectures n^^^ on the beliefs and svstem of Catholicism. The Dublin Review ^ appears and the Catholic revival begins. A proposal to abolish subscription at matriculation is defeated by the High Churchmen. Pusey joins the movement and contributes a Tract on Baptism. Blanco White becomes a Unitariau. 2758. French Oh. Lacordaire preaches at Notre Dame. 2759. German Oh. Vatke's Biblical Theology declares the Levitical law post-exilic, an assertion later adopted by Graf. Reuss reaches a similar conclusion about the same time. Strauss' Life of Jesus attacks the miracles and places the Gospels in the second century. 2760. Italian Oh. Ferrone's Praelectiones Theologicae. 358 POLITICS [18S5 1768. ^ Spain. Zuinalacarregui, the ablest Carlist leader, dies ; but the Carlists win a number of victories, and the cause of the Queen is weakened by the dissensions between the Moderados and Progresistas. 1769. Austria. Ferdinand I. succeeds, but Mettemich retains power. 6aj advocates ' lUyrism/ a movement to unite the lUyrian states ; but the scheme is opposed by Hungarians and Servians. 1770. Amerioa. Jackson compels France to pay indemnity for damage to American commerce since 1803. War breaks out with the Seminole Indians. 1771. Australasia. The Port Phillip Association founds Victoria. 1772. Africa. The Sultan reasserts his authority in Tripoli. 1773. England. The division lists are published by the House ngoo of Commons. ^ ^^ Tithe in kind is commuted into a rent-charge, to vary with the price of com. 1774. Ireland. The Orange Lodges, which have increased in numbers and activity, owing to the success of the Catholics, are dissolved. The Irish Tithe Bill is resisted by the Lords and abandoned by the Government. 1775. France. Louis Napoleon, son of Napoleon's brother, Louis, King of Holland, tries to stir up a rising among the troops at Strasburg, but fails, and is sent to America. Thiers becomes Plremier, but fails to obtain the approval of the King for his proposal to support the Spanish constitutionalists, and resigns. 1776. Spain. The rrogresistas compel Christina to re-establish the Constitution of 1812. Espartero takes command, and defeats the Carlists with the aid of an English fleet and troops. 1777. Portugal. The Queen confirms the Constitution of 1822, and the adherents of Miguel are finally suppressed. 1778. Switzerland. In consequence oi an attack on the life of Louis Philippe, Thiers, supported by Austria, compels Switzerland to expel all political refugees. 1779. Italy. Lambruschini, the leader of the reactionaries, becomes Papal secretary. 1780. Bohemia. The publication of Palacky's History of the Bohe- mians first acquaints the Czechs with their past^ and more than anythin^p else contributes to revive the spirit of Bohemian nationality. It is aided by Safarik's Slavic Antiquities. 1781. Russia. Tchadaiefi''s Philosophical Letters attack the govern- ment and the country for their resistance to western ideas, and ridicule Aksakov and other Slavophils. 1782. America. Petitions against Slavery are presented to Congress, and 'gag resolutions' are passed, forbidding their consideration. Adams protests, presents a petition and defends mmself against the proposal of censure. 1836] CULTURE 359 2761. Eng. Lit. Browning's Paracelsus. Walker's humorous penodical, the Original. 2762. Frenoh Lit. Jasmin's Gascon poems, Papillotos. 2765. German Lit. Grimm's German Mythology. Bettina y. Amim publishes Goethe's Correspondence with a Child. 2764. Danish Lit. Hans Andersen's first Fairy Tales. 2766. Finnish Lit. The Ealevala is collected and published. 2766. Science. Hooker institutes a botanical laboratory at Kew. 2767. Art. Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor. 2768. Philosophy. Quetelet's La Physique Sociale. 2769. Philology. W. Humboldt investigates the Eawi language of Java. 2770. Politics. De Tocqueville's Democracy in America. Cobden's pamphlets, England, Ireland and America, and Kussia advocate free trade and non-mtervention. 2771. Edncation. The introduction of Western culture and the use and study of the English language into India is determined. University College, London, is allowed to grant degrees. 2772. History. Thirlwall's History of Greece. 2773. Deaths. Cobbett, W. v. Humboldt. 2774. Eng. Ch. Newman's Prophetical Office of the Church rj^ggg defines the theory of the Oxford movement. •• Tithe-Commutation is eflFected. The Ecclesiastical Commissioners are incorporated. Hampden is appointed Redus Professor of Theology at Oxford, but is fiercely attacked by the High Churchmen and censured by the University. The Presbyterian Church of England establishes a Synod. 2776. German Ch. Gorres' Christian Mysticism. Fliedner institutes deaconesses in the Lutheran Church. 2776. Italian Ch. The Jesuits control the College of the Propaganda. 2777. Eng. Lit. Dickens' Sketches by Boz, and Pickwick. f^78. Frenoh Lit. De Musset's Confession d'un Enfant du Sifecle. Emile de Girardin edits La Presse. Lamartine's Jocelyn. 2779. German Lit Ruckert's Wisdom of the Brahmans. 2780. Russian Lit. Gogol's The Revisor attacks official corruption. 2781. Hungarian Lit. Josika writes his first novel, Abafi. 2782. American Lit. Emerson's lecture on Nature founds Transcen- dentalism. 2783. Science. Struve's Investigations of double and composite stars. 2784. Art- Meyerbeer's The Huguenots. Glinka's opera. Life for the Tsar. 2786. Philology. Bumouf deciphers inscriptions at Ecbatana. Diez' Grammar of the Romance Languages. 360 POLITICS [18S6 Emigrants from the Southern States overturn the constitution of Texas as part of the Mexican republic, adopt a new constitution, and, under Houston, proclaim independence from Mexico. The Texans desire to be admitted as a slave state; but Jackson and Van Buren refuse. 1783. Australaaia. South Australia receives a government, and Ade- laide becomes the capital. 1784. Africa. Owin^ to inadequate compensation for the abolition of slavery and for the damage done by Eamr inroads, and to their exclu- sion from political privileges, a large number of Boers * trek ' from Cape Colony and settle m Natal. After desperate fighting, they break the power of the Zulus, depose their King, Dingan, and set up another King, Panda. 1785. En^ancL Victoria, daughter of the Duke of Eent^ be- [-1037 comes Queen. In the interval between her accession and her ^ marriage, she is guided chiefly by Lord Melbourne and by Baron Stockmar, a close friend of her uncle, King Leopold. The Working Men's Association is formed, and a Charter of six points is adopted, demanding manhood suffrage, the ballot, annual Parliaments, pajrment of members, abolition of property qualification, equal electoral districts. Grote proposes the ballot. 1786. Germany. On the death of William IV. of England, Hanover passes to his brother, the Duke of Cumberland, who ascends the throne as Ernest I., abolishes the Constitution of 1833, and dismisses Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, Dahlmann, Gervinus, Ewald, Weber, and other Gottingen professors who protest. 1787. Spain. Don Carlos is decisively defeated. The Constituent Cortes draw up a Constitution of two Chambers, but allowing the sovereign greater power than that conferred by the Constitution of 1812. 1788. Russia. Vitkievitch is sent as the first Russian agent to Afghanistan. 1789. America. Wendell Phillips joins Garrison in his crusade against slavery. The first abolitionist martyr, Lovejoy, an editor, is murdered. Anti-slavery opinion begins to grow rapidly in New England. In Canada complaints are made of misgovemment in both French and English provinces, and a rebellion breaks out under Papineau. The National Debt bein^ paid off, Jackson lends the surplus revenue to the States without interest, his policy provoking a mania for speculation. 1790. Asia. Despite the protests of England, the Shah of Persia, under Russian influence, invades Afghanistan as an ancient possession of Persia, and besieges Herat. After 10 months the Persians withdraw, on the threat of English intervention. Lord Auckland in alarm sends Burnes to urge Dost Mohammed to ally with England. Bumes 1837] CULTURE 361 2786. History. Mignet edits the negotiations relative to the Spanish Succession. Palacky's Histoiy of Bohemia. 2787. Politics. A Communist League is founded in Paris. 2788. Law. Wheaton's International Law developes the idea of neutrality. 2789. Education. London University becomes a purely examining body, the teaching being carried on by University College. 2790. Deaths. A. M. Ampere, Armand Carrel, Godwin, Jussieu, James Mill, Sieyfes. 2791. French Oh. RavigDan preaches at Notre-Dame. ri837 2792. German Ch. The Archbishop of Cologne is imprisoned '- b^ the King of Prussia for rejecting his predecessor's compromise on mixed marriages ; the Archbishop of Gnesen and Posen ana others are similarly treated. An Ultramontanist party is in consequence formed, led by Gorres in Munich. On the accession of Frederick William IV., 1840, the laws cease to be enforced. Rothe's Beginnings of the Christian Church declares that Christ did not found a Church, and that the function of the Church is to create the ideal State in which it will be merged. 2795. Swiss Ch. Vinet becomes Professor of Practical Theology at Lausanne, and advocates the entire separation of Church and State. 2794. Danish Ch. Grundtvig's Songs for the Danish Church. 2796. American Ch. The Presbyterians split into Old School and New School, the latter being charged with Arminianism. 2796. Church Hist. Hodgson discovers Northern Buddhist literature in NepaL 2797. Eng. Lit. Lockhart's Life of Scott. Barham commences to write the Ingoldsby Legends. 2798. German Lit. Eckermann publishes his Conversations with Goethe. 2799. Russian Lit. Lermontof s Elegy on Pushkin's death. 2800. Flemish Lit. Conscience's Flemish novel, the Year of Miracles. 2801. Literature. Pitman invents a system of shorthand. 2802. Science. Agassiz proves a glacial period. Dana's System of Mineralogy. Schwann attacks the theory of spontaneous generation. Mohrs' paper, On the Nature of Heat, first enunciates the theory of the conservation of energy. Cooke and Wheatstone improve the electric telegraph, which is perfected by Morse, whose instrument and alphabet are rapidly adopted. Gould's Birds of Europe. 280S. Art. Cruikshank illustrates Oliver Twist 2804. Philology. Lepsius' Hieroglyphic Alphabet. Grotefend deciphers cuneiform inscriptions of Persia. 362 POLITICS [1837 promises him aid in his domestic quarrels; but Auckland refuses to ratify this agreement. A British ambassador is allowed to reside at Canton. 1791. Australasia. The New Zealand Association is established, of which Gibbon Wakefield becomes managing director. 1792. AMoa. Ck>nstantine is taken by the French, and a peace is made with Abdelkader ; but war breaks out again, 1839, 1793. England. Villiers' first motion to consider the Com Laws noog is rejected by 300 to 95. An Anti-Corn Law League is formed ^ in Manchester by Cobden and Bright. 1794. Ireland. Drummond, the Chief Secretary, announces that property has its duties as well as its rights. A roor Law is passed to saye eyicted tenants from starvation ; and a Tithe Act leyies tithe on the landowner instead of on the tenant, the appropriation clause haying been dropped to disarm the Lords. 1795. Franoe. At the demand of France, Switzerland expels Louis Napoleon, who settles in England. 1796. Italy. The Austrians eyacuate the Papal States (but retain Ferrara), and the French withdraw from Ancona. 1797. America. The rebellion is suppressed. Lord Durham is ap- pointed Goyernor General of Canada, and on his arriyal transports rebels to Bermuda, and threatens them with death if they return. He is in consequence recalled ; but his adyice, contained in a report drawn up chiefly by Charles BuUer on the lines of Gibbon Wakefield, is taken, the two colonies are united, and the legislature receiyes control oyer the executiya France declares war on Mexico, and captures Vera Cruz. Peace is restored, 1839. 1798. Asia. Dost Mohammed receiyes a Russian mission at Cabul, and England declares war. 1799. Afirica. Mehemet Ali refuses to pay tribute to the Sultan, and claims the hereditary Governorship of Egypt and Syria. 1800. En^and. Spring-Bice announces a deficit without pro- naog posing a remedy, and the majority falls to fiye. Melbourne ^ resigns, and Peel, who forms a goyernment, demands the remoyal of the relatiyes of the late goyernment among the ladies of the Queen's bed- chamber. The Queen refuses. Peel declines oifice, and Melbourne returns. Meetings are held in support of the Charter, and a national conyen- tion of delegates from the great towns, led by Fergus O'Connor and 1839] CULTURE 363 2805. Education. Froebel institutes his first Kindergarten. Horace Mann reforms Education in Massachusetts. 2806. History. Ranke's History of the Popes. Carlyle's History of the French Revolution. Prescott's Ferdinand and Isabella. Spruner's Historico-Geographical Atlas. 2807. Anthropology. Zeuss' The Germans and the Neighbour Races. 2808. Deaths. Colebrooke, Leopardi, Pushkin. 2809. Eng. Oh. Newman's Lectures on Justification. 11838 Fronde's Remains, edited by Newman and KeblOi condemn >- the Reformation. Newman is joined by W. 6. Ward. 2810. French Oh. Lacordaire revives the Dominican Order in France. 2811. Eng. Lit. The Sterling Club is formed, of which Carlyle, Mill, Thirlwall, Wilberforce, TroUope, Trench, Hare, Maurice, are members. 2812. Trench Lit. Rachel's d^but revives the French classical drama. 2813. Science. Schleiden's Cellular Theory of Plants. Bessel measures the distance of a fixed star (61 Cygni). Miller founds geometrical crystaUography on a true basis. The London and Birmingham Railway, the work of Robert Stephenson, is opened. The Sirius and the Great Western cross the Atlantic. 2814. Art. Jenny Lind's d^but Menzel illustrates Eugler's Life of Frederick the Great. 2815. Philosophy. The Hallische Jahrbiicher, edited by Ruge, cham- pions Hegelianism, but in 1841 turns to radical politics, supported by ^lum, Herwegh, Marx, Freiligrath, Gutzkow, Borne. 2816. Philology. Julius Mohl translates the Shah-Nameh of Firdusi. 2817. PoUtics. Lieber's Political Ethics. 2818. Economica Coumot applies mathematics to economics. 2819. History. Ranke edits the Year-books of mediaeval Germany. Arnold's History of Rome. 2820. Geography. Eyre COTlores Australia from East to West 2821. SociaL Father Mathew undertakes a Temperance crusade in Ireland. Ghadwick obtains a Sanitary Commission in WhitechapeL 2822. Deaths. Mohler, Talleyrand, Sylvestre de Sacy. 2823. Eng. Oh. Newman studies Monophysitism, and is 'hit' ngsg by Wiseman's article in the Dublin Review on the Donatists. '- 2824. German Ch. Dorner's Histoiy of the Doctrine of the Person of Christ Julius Miiller's Christian Doctrine of Sin defends the ideas of personality and liberty in God and man against pantheism and deter- minism. 2825. Russian Oh. Philaret, Metropolitan of Moscow, composes a 364 POLITICS [1839 Ernest Jones, draws up a petition to Parliament, which, however, refuses to consider it. 1801. France. Les Saisons, a secret Socialist Society, organises a revolt in Paris, but is put down. 1802. Spain. Espartero compels the Basques and the North to recog- nise Christina. Don Carlos resigns his claim to his son. The Regent attempts to rule with the Moderados, who are supported by France. England, however, supports the Progresistas. 1803. Belgimn. Holland accepts the proposals of 1831. 1804. Russia. An expedition under Perofski, sent to attack Chiva and to prevent the East India Company gaining influence in Central Asia, fails. 1805. Turkey. The Sultan determines to prevent Mehemet AK from becoming completely independent, and declares war on E^3rpt. Ibrahim routs the TurKs at Nisib (June). Sultan Mahmoud dies a few days later, and is succeeded by his son, Abdul Mezid. On this the Turkish admiral, who has orders to attack the Syrian coast, sails to Alexandria and surrenders his fleet to Mehemet Ali, who plans to supplant the Sultan. France encourages Mehemet; but Palmerston resolves to maintain the jwwer of Turkey. Reshid Pasha persuades the new Sultan, Abdul Mezid, to issue a scheme of reforms, but fails to obtain support in their execution, and a reaction sets in. 1806. America. The Confederation of Central America is dissolved. The Republic of Honduras is proclaimed. 1807. Asia. A British army enters Afghanistan, deposes Dost Mohammed, and places Shah Soojah on the throne. The English in Canton are forced to surrender their opium and to leave China (May). War breaks out, and Hong Eong is taken. Aden is annexed by England. 1808. Afirica. A French settlement is founded on the Congo coast 1809. En^smd. The Queen marries Albert of Saxe-Coburg- noAn Gotha. L^^ 1810. Ireland. The Irish Municipal Act is passed. O'Connell renews the repeal agitation. 1811. France. Louis Napoleon lands at Boulogne and tries to excite an insurrection (Aug.), but is captured (Oct.), and condemned to lifelong imprisonment at Ham, whence he escapes to England, 1846. Thiers fails to persuade the King to actively support Mehemet Ali against the Coalition, and falls. Guizot becomes supreme. The remains of Napoleon are brought from St Helena and buried in the Church of the Invalides at Paris. Guizot mentions the plan of a Spanish marriage for one of the King's sons, in conversation witn Palmerston. 1812. Spain. Christina is forced to retire to France. 1840] CULTURE 365 Catechism, which is authorised by the Holy Synod and used in the schools and churches. The two million Uniates are declared by a Ukase incorporated with the Greek Church. A fewUniate Churches continue to exist in Galicia> South Hungary and Transylvania. ^8^6, Swiss Ch. Strauss is api)ointed Professor at Zurich, but is. expelled. £827. Eng. Lit. Lever's Harry Lorrequer. £8£8. American Lit. The Lowell Lectures are instituted at Boston. Longfellow's Hyperion. £8£9. Italian Lit. Carcano's novel, Angiola Maria. 28S0, Portngaese Lit. Almeida-Garrett's works found the romantic school. £831. Polish Lit. Krasewski's poem, The World and the Poet £8S£. Science. Leverrier studies the relations of the planets. Daguerre invents a process of photography, which is improved by Talbot by introducing a negativa Schwann studies the structure of the elementary textures, and shews that the same cellular structure exists in the simpler planto and animals. Ehrenberg points out the share of the remains of minute organisms in chalk and otner formations. Agassiz* Fresh-water Fishes of Europe. Purkinje founds the first physiological institute at Breslau and applies the microscope. £8SS. Art. Wiertz* picture of Patroclus (Brussels). Turner s Fiffhting T^m^raire. £834. Philosophy. Gioberti's Introduction to the study of Philosophy tends towards Hegelianism. £835. Philology. Madvig edits Cicero's De Finibus. £836. Education. Russell founds the Committee of Council, and intro- duces a system of inspection and report. A Vice-President is appointed 1856. £837. Death. Speranski. £838. Eng. Ch. Palmer visits the Russian Church to discuss mqao, reunion. '- £839. Scotch Ch. Thomas Guthrie begins to preach in Edinburgh. 2840. American Ch. Emerson addresses tne Divinity School at Cambridge, Massachusetts, from a frankly rationalistic standpoint. £841, Church Hist. The Jews are accused of human sacrifice in Rhodes and Damascus. Montefiore goes to the East, and obtains from the Sultan a firman dismissing the charges, and declaring the equality of Jews before the law. 284£. French Lit. Maurice de Gu^rin's Le Centaur. Sainte-Beuve's Histoire de Port Royal. £843. Qerman Lit. Geibel's Poems. £844. American Lit. Margaret Fuller and Emerson edit the Dial, the 366 POLITICS [1840 1813. Turkey. Palmerston persuades Prussia and Austria to conclude the Treaty of London, diortly joined by Russia, to compel Mehemet Ali to restore Syria and Crete (July). An English fleet is sent, and is joined by Turkish and Austrian smps ; Ibrahim is defeated in Syria» and Beyrout and Acre are bombarded Mehemet receives Egypt as a hereditary possession, jjaying tribute to the Sultan. 1814. America. To cope with the financial crisis. Van Buren makes large vaults in the chief cities, where government funds are to be received and paid out. In the presidential election, Harrison, the Whig candidate, is successful, but cues a month after his installation, and is succeeded by the Vice-President Tyler, an extreme Democrat of the Calhoun school. Lopez succeeds to supreme i)ower in Paraguay. 1815. AiiBtralasia. The Treaty of Waitan^ is concluded with the Maoris, who cede their sovereignty, i.e. their political rights, to the Queen. Their lands are guaranteed, but pre-emption is claimed by the Government. The transportation of convicts to New South Wales ceases. 1816. Acda. An English fleet blockades Canton, and takes Chusan, afber which a truce is concluded. Dost Mohammed surrenders, and leaves the country. 1817. En^and. To make up the deficit, a fixed dutv of Ss. rigii a quarter on com and a sugar duty are proposed. Peel carries *■ a vote of want of confidence by one. Melbourne resigns, Peel obtains a very large majority, and includes Stanley, Graham, and Ripon in his Ministry. The question of the Queen's household is compromised. Delane becomes editor of the Times, in which Henry Reeve now begins to write the leading articles on foreign policv. 1818. Qermany. Jacoby's Four Questions Answered claims the grant of the constitution promised to Prussia. 1819. Switzerland. The monasteries are abolished in Aargau, and Lucerne answers by admitting the Jesuits and giving them the control of education. 1820. Spain. Kspartero is appointed Regent during the minority of Isabella. 1821. Hungary. Kossuth and Deak supplant Szechenyi in the leader- ship of the nationalist party, and Kossuth, who has been imprisoned by Metternich and is now released, founds a political daily paper. 1822. Turkey. Mehemet Ali restores the Turkish fleet, and his posi- tion in Eg^t is recognised. The Powers, including France, sign a convention by which the Dardanelles are closed to all ships of war, Russia thus sacrificing her rights under the treaty of Unkiar SkelessL The Sultan is placed under the protection of Europe. Canning again becomes British Ambassador at Constantinopla 1841] CULTURE 867 organ of the American Transcendentalists, aided by Freeman Clarke, Churning, Theodore Parker, Thoreau, Ripley. 284S, Science. Biot's researches on the polarisation of li^ht. Liebig's Chemistry in application to Amculture and Physiology. Reichert, aided by EoUiker and Vircnow, proves all organs to be derived from the multiplication and combination of cells. Forbes' British Star-fishes. Hugh Miller's Old Red Sandstone. ^846, Art. Clara Wieck marries Schumann and performs his works. Barry designs the Houses of Parliament, aided by Pugin, the greatest work of the Gothic revival in England. iB847. i^rchaeology. Fellows discovers Aanthus and other Lycian cities. siS48. Philosophy. Trendelenburg's Logical Investigations attack HegeL £849. PoliticB. Proudhon's Qu'est-ce que la Propridt^ declares that government will become unnecessary when the causes of ill-doing are removed. 28S0. Social. Rowland Hill introduces the penny post £851, Deaths. Olbers, Paganini, Poisson. 28S2. Eng. Ch. Tait and three other Oxford tutors issue a riQ^i Protest- against Tract 90, in which Newman explains the ^ 39 Articles in a Catholic sensa Newman is censured by the Hebdo- madal Board, and the Bishop of Oxford persuades him to bring the Tracts to a close. Newman is deeply affected by the agreement, negotiated by Bunsen, for Prussia and England jointly to institute a bi^opric at Jerusalem. Miall founds and edits The Nonconformist. £853. Italian Ch. Don Bosco founds the Oratory of St Francis de Sales for work among boys. £854, American Ch. Theodore Parker preaches on Transient and Permanent Elements in Christianity. £855. African Ch. Livingstone begins missionary work in S. Afirica. £856. Anstralasian Ch. Selwyn becomes first Bishop of New Zealand. £857. Church Hist. Cureton publishes the Syriac version of three of Ignatius' Epistles. £858. Eng. Lit. Mark Lemon edits Punch, which Leech illustrates and to which Gilbert k Beckett, Doudas Jerrold and Thackeray contribute. £859. French Lit. Mdrim^'s Colomba. £860. German Lit. Herwegh's Poems. Hebbel's JuditL Hacklander's Pictures firom the Life of Soldiers. £861. Dutch Lit. Paludan-Miiller's Adam Homo. £86£. ItaUan Lit. D'Azeglio's Niccolo de Lapi. 368 POLITICS [1841 1823. America. Negotiations begin concerning the frontier line between Venezuela and Britisn Guiana. ^ Horace Greely bedns to edit the New York Tribune. 1824. Australasia. New Zealand becomes a separate colony. ^ 1825. Asia. A treaty made by the Chinese Commissioner, ceding Hong Kong, is disavowed by the Emperor, and the war continues. An insurrection at Cabul takes place, and Bumes and others are murdered. The officers agree to withdraw the army. 1826. Africa. The Great Powers agree to allow mutual right of search in order to suppress the slave trade. A treaty of commerce is made between England and Abyssinia, and a consul is shortly appointed. 1827. En^and. Peel reimposes Pitt's income-tax for three 1-1040 years, and lowers a number of duties. In regard to com, he *- carries a sliding scale duty of 208, when the price of com is 51«., decreasing to la. at 73^. A great Chartist petition is drawn up -, but a motion to hear counsel in its support is lost. 1828. Ir^and. The Young Ireland movement, working on parallel lines to that of O'Connell, is be^n by Davis and Gavan Duffy, who edit the Nation, and attempt to revive the interest of the people in their history and literature. 1829. Prance. The dynasty is weakened by the death of the Duke of Orleans, leaving two infant sons, the Comte de Paris, and the Due de Chartres. 1830. Servia. The son of Milosch Obrenovitch is expelled, and a Kara- georgevitch is chosen. 1831. America. Lord Ashburton and Daniel Webster, the Secretary of State, arrange the frontier between Canada and Maine by the Ashburton Treaty. Both agree by the Treaty of Washington to watch the African coast in order to stop the slave trade, and to surrender the right of search. 1832. Australasia. The Tahiti Isles, for a long time the scene of English missionary effort, become a French Protectorate. Partial representation is introduced in N. S. Wales and South Australia. 1833. Asia. The English retreat begins, almost all the troops being treacherously slain in the Khyber Pass (Jan.). Pollock is sent to reoccupy Cabul, and dismantles the fortifications ; but he is forced to reco^ise Dost Mohammed, and Afjzhanistan is evacuated. Sir Charles Napier is sent by Lord EUenborough to amiex Scinde. The opium war ends with the Treaty of Nankin. Canton, Shanghai, and three other jjorts are opened to English trade; Hong Kong is ceded ; an indemnity is paid ; a tariff is framed ; and official intercourse on a basis of equality is provided for. 1842] CULTURE 369 2863. Spanish Lit. EsproDceda's £1 Diablo Mundo. 2864. American Lit. Longfellow's Ballads. 2866. Science. Cauchy's researches on determinants. Stas studies the atomic weights of a number of elements, and declares that there are no simple relations between them. James Forbes declares glaciers viscous bodies. Bokitansky's Handbook of Pathological Anatomy. 2866. Archaeology. J. L. Stephens explores the dead cities of the Mayas of Yucatan, and studies their calculiform writing. 2867. Philosophy. Vatke's Free Will in relation to Sin and Grace attempts to combine Hegel and Schleiermacher. Feuerbach's Essence of Christianity maintains that Christianity is the creation of human hopes and fears. 2868. Politics. Cabet's Voyage en Icarie, a scheme of communism. Louis Blanc recommends national workshops. 2869. Economics. List insists that absolute free trade conflicts with the National Idea. 2870. Geography. Livingstone discovers Lake Ngami. Sir James Boss finds the great Southern continent. 2871. Education. Degrees are granted to women in America. 2872. Deaths. Baader, Chantrey, Decandolle, Lermontof. 2873. Eng. Ch. Isaac Williams is defeated in a contest for the [^342 Chair of Poetry at Oxford vacated by Keble. *■ 2874. French Ch. Veuillot becomes editor of the Univers, which he makes the organ of Ultramontanism. 2876. Spanish Ch. Balmes' Protestantism and Catholicism, a survey of their respective contributions to civilisation. 2876. Swedish Lit. Frederika Bremer's novel, The Neighbours. 2877. Church Hist The Refutation of all Heresies of Hippolytus is found at Mount Athos. 2878. Eng. Lit. Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Boma Tennyson's Poems, chiefly lyrical. 2879. French Lit. Scribe's Verre d'Eau. 2880. Russian Lit Gogol's Dead Souls. 2881. American Lit Brook Farm, near Boston, is taken by Bipley and the Transcendentalists for the purpose of a common life. 2882. Science. Mayer reaches the mechanical theory of heat without experiments. Steenstrup's Alternation of Generations shows that many species are represented by two distinct types. Dr Braid, a Manchester surgeon, studies ' Hypnotism.' Murchison establishes the Permian svstem. Schleiden proves that the plant embryo and all vegetable tissuea spring from a nucleated celL Darwin investigates the origin of coral reefs. o. 24 370 POLITICS [1842 1834. Afirica. Morocco enters the war between France and Abd-el- Kader. The Sultan annexes Tripoli and Barca. The Dutch settlers in Natal are exj^Ued by an English expedition to Durban, and the greater number trek into the Orange Free State and the Transvaal, where they engage in desperate struggles with the Matabele. JNatal is declared a crown colony, 1844. 1835. En^smd. Fergus O'Connor explains his land scheme. ri843 1836. Ireland. O'Connell's proposed meeting at Clontarf, near *- Dublin, is forbidden by the Government, which is anxious to avoid bloodshed. O'Gonnell thereupon dissuades his followers from attending, but is arrested for sedition. Feel passes an amended Arms Act, forbidding the possession of amis except by special license. 1837. France. Louis Blanc founds La R^forme, the organ of the Radical-Socialist party, and agitates for Parliamentary reform. He is supported by Ledru-RoUin and Arago. The Entente Cordiale, established by Aberdeen and Guizot, and resting on their mutual confidence, is ratified by the visit of the Queen and Prince Consort to Louis Philip{)e at £u. The King assures the Queen that they are not contemplating a marriage of one of his sons with Isabella of Spain. 1838. Spain. Espartero becomes unpopular, and is forced by Narvaee to fly to Endand. Christina is recaliea, Isabella is declared of age, and the Moderaaos, under Narvaez, supported by French influence, become supreme. 1839. Switzerland. The seven Catholic Cantons make the Sonder- bund, to prevent the suppression of religious houses and to oppose the revision of the federal constitution. 1840. Hungary. The Magyars attempt to exclude all languages but their own from ofiicial use, and fighting between Slavs and Magyars occurs in Croatia. 1841. Greece. Otho is compelled by a revolt to dismiss his Bavarian counsellors and to grant a constitution. The country, however, con- tinues to suffer from brigandage and bankruptcy. 1842. Africa. The Gambia is separated from Sierra Leone; and the Gold Coast is taken over by the Crown. France establishes a port on the Gold Coast as a base for French traders. L843. England. PeeFs Bank Charter Act separates the depart- r^g^ ment which issues notes from that which carries on ordinary •• banking business, limits the issue of notes to the amount of bullion in "j 1841] CULTURE 371 2883. Law. Bichter's Catholic and Lutheran Church Law in Germany. i^84. Social. A Royal Commission on Mines first reveals the evils of women's and of children's labours, which is forbidden by a bill introduced by Ashley. Godin founds a Familist^re at Guise. i^885. Deaths. Thomas Arnold, Bell, Channing, Espronceda, Gesenius, Stendhal iB886. Eng. Ch. Newman resigns his position at St TAarfs. ri843 Pusey is forbidden to preach for two years owing to his ^ sermon on the Eucharist. 2887. Scotch Ch. Four hundred and seventy-four clergy leave the established Church, led by Chalmers, Guthrie and Hugh Miller, on account of lay patronage being made legal by the Auchterarder case. A sustentation nind is rapidly raised. 2888. French Ch. Forbin-Janson founds FCEuvre de la Sainte- Enfance. 2889. Qerman Ch. Beck revives Evangelicalism at Tiibingen. 2890. Italian Ch. Gioberti's Primacy of the Italians declares Italy morallv and intellectually pre-eminent among nations. 2891. American Ch. Joseph Smith authorises polygamy for the Mormons. 2892. Eng. Lit. Carlyle's Past and Present. 2893. French Lit. Hugo's Les Burgraves marks the decline of the romantic school, and Ponsard's Lucr^ce revives classicism. 2894. German Lit. Gutzkow's Tassel and Sword. 2895. Polish Lit. Kraszewski's social novel, The Magic Lamp. 2896. Science. Logan, of the Canada Survey, detects pre-Cambrian formations, which he calls Laurentian. Henson constructs an Aerostat. Quenstedt classifies the Jurassic rocks of Swabia. 2897. Art. Balfe's Bohemian Girl. Designs for the decoration of the Houses of Parliament are sub- mitted by Watts, Maclise and Madox Brown. Buskin's Modem Painters, voL I. 2898. Philosophy. Mill's Logic discusses the theory and method of inductions, and maintains that the conception of Causation is purely empirical. The concluding Book applies the methods of Physical Science to moral and political problems. 2899. History. Ewald's History of the Jews. 2900. Economics. Roscher founds the Historical School. 2901. Agriculture. Lawes and Gilbert practise scientific agriculture. 2902. Death. Southey. 2903. Eng. Ch. Ward's Ideal of a Christian Church is condemned r^g^^ by the Hebdomadal Board at Oxford. ^ Miall and other Nonconformists found the Liberation Society. 2904. German Ch. Ronge and Czerski denounce the exhibition of the 24—2 872 POLITICS [1844 the Bank, plus 14 millions, plus two-thirds the amount issued by any bank that ceases to exist, ana restricts the issue of provincial banks. Mazzini's letters are opened by the English Government, in order to discover whether he is plotting against the desi)otic governments of Italy. 1844. Ireland. O'Connell is tried and sentenced to a fine and a year's imprisonment; but the sentence is reversed by the Lords on a technical error. 1845. Denmark. Holstein declares Schleswig and Holstein independent, indivisible, and governed by the rule of male descent. 1846. Germany. Weavers' riots break out in Silesia, where the economic distress is very p^ve. 1847. Russia. On his visit to England, Nicholas proposes to Lord Aberdeen to act together in the event of a disruption of Turkey. 1848. America. Tykr, a slave-holder, and Calhoun, the Secretar^r of State, secretly negociate the annexation of Texas. The Senate reject it; but in the presidential election, Polk, who stands for annexation, defeats Clay and a Liberty Party candidate. 1849. West Indies. The Kepublic of San Domingo is founded. 1850. Afirica. The Emperor of Morocco invades Algeria, and a large French expedition is sent out. Tangier and Mogador are bombarded, and the Emperor is forced to make the Treaty of Tangier. 1851. En^and. Peel abolishes or diminishes many duties on no^R imports, and removes all duties on exports. A letter written 1^ *■ Kussell from Edinburgh declares for complete abolition ; but reel f&ils to persuade his Cabinet to take the step, is bitterly attacked by Disraeli and Bentinck, and resigns (Dec). Russell fails to form a ministry, and Peel returns to power. 1852. Ireland. Catholics are permitted to hold property in their own name. Peel raises the grant to Maynooth College. Though he approves the step, Gladstone resigns his omce on the ground that the grant con- flicts with the views expressed in his published works. The Devon Commission, appointed 1844, to inquire into the griev- ances of tenants, condemns the system of Leinster, Munster, and Connaught, but praises the Ulster custom of tenant-right. Peel there- fore introduces a Bill extending compensation to tenants, which is rejected by the Lords. The potato crop is destroyed by disease. 1853. Italy. Disturbances break out in the Romagna ; and France garrisons Ferrara, in accordance with her rights under the Treaty of Vienna. 1854. Spain. The Moderados frame a reactionary Constitution, and abolish the right of the Cortes to assemble unsummoned. 1855. America. Texas is admitted to the Union as a dave state. 1846] CULTURB 373 Holy Goat of Treves, and found a German Catholic Church; but Ronge loses his belief in the divinity of Christ, and Czerski withdraws, and the movement collapses. The Pope condemns the rationalistic teaching of Hermes. 2905, American Ch. John Thomas founds the Christadelphians. 2906, Eng. Lit. Einglake's Eothen. Stanley's Life of Dr Arnold Disraeli's Coningsby. 2907, French Lit Dumas' Monte Cristo. 2908. Science. Chambers' Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation asserts that all forms of life have an impulse to rise and to modify according to environment. 2909, Art. Joachim makes his d^but 2910. Philosophy. Stirner's The Individual and his Property pro- pounds a system of ultra-individualism in morals, economics and politics. 2911. Philology. Castren studies North Asiatic philology and ethnology. 2912. History. Waitz' Constitutional History of Germany. 2915, Law. Heffter's International Law of the Present. 2914, Economics. Mill's Unsettled Questions of Political Economy discuss the theory of international trade. 2916. Social. The Rochdale Pioneers found a Cooperative Store. 2916. Deaths. Dalton, Thorwaldsen. 2917. Eng. Ch. Ward is condemned and degraded by Convocation ng^R and joins the Roman Church (Sept. ). Newman follows, explaining ^ his step in his Development of Christian Doctrine. After the secession, Pusey, Marriott and Mozley lead the Anglo-Catholic party. Pusey founds the first sisterhood. Wilberforce becomes Bishop of Oxford. 2918. German Ch. Rothe's Theological Ethics leads the reaction against the rigidity of the Hengstenberg school, and asserts that the consciousness of God is equally immediate with the consciousness of the Ego, that religion lies in morality, and that the Church, when its work is done, becomes merged in the moral community, the State. 2919. Hungarian Lit. Eotvos' novel. The Village Notary. 2920. Danish Lit. Hertz' lyrical drama. King Rent's Daughter. 2921. American Lit. Hawthorne's Mosses from an old Manse. 2922. Science. Lord Rosse constructs a large reflector at Parsonstown. Adams computes the orbit of an unknown planet, which would explain the irregularities observed in the motion of Uranus. Humboldt's Cosmos, a survey of the world. Faraday discovers the connection of electro-magnetism and light. Armstrong invents the hydraulic crane. Neumann states the mathematical laws of magneto-electric in- duction. Reichenbach's researches on Magnetism and Vital Force. Cbyley states the theory of Invariants. 374 POLITICS [1846 1856. Australasia. The first Maori war breaks out, owing to the breach of the Treaty of Waitanri. Sir Georce Grey arrives, declares that the treaty remains intact, and suppresses the revolt. 1857. Asia. The Sikhs invaae British territory, and are defeated in two fierce battles at Ferozeshah and Moodkee (Dec.). 1858. Africa. A massacre of Christian converts takes place in Mada- gascar. A joint French and English expedition is sent, but fails to effect a landing, and the island is closed to European commerce for some years. 1859. En^and. Peel carries a Bill for the gradual abolition of mdar the com duty, which is to sink to Is. a quarter after 1849. ^ Disraeli and the Protectionist conservatives join Russell in rejecting a Coercion Bill for Ireland, Peel resigns (June), and Russell forms a ministry. 1860. Ireland. The potato crop a^ain fails, and, despite the sale of Indian com and the institution of relief works, the area and intensity of the famine increase. 1861. Italy. Pius IX. becomes Pope, amnesties political offenders, and appoints a Council of State. Metternich occupies the city of Ferrara, contrary to the Treaty of Vienna. Pius protests, and prepares for armed resistance. Leopold of Tuscany and the Duke of Lucca are forced to grant administrative reforms ; but the latter sells his duchy to Tuscany and retires into private life. 1862. Spain. Louis Philippe, on the advice of Ouizot, chooses Francis, Duke of Cadiz, her cousin, who is unlikely to have children, as husband for the Queen of Spain, and marries her only sister to the Duke of Montpensier, his own son, on the same day, despite his express promise to Queen Victoria to wait till Isabella had an heir. Though he asserts that Palmerston, who succeeds Aberdeen, was intriguing against Mont- pensier, his conduct arouses ^reat resentment in England, abmptly terminates the Entente Cordiale, and weakens the position of the Orleanist dynasty. 1863. Portugal. The followers of Miguel again revolt, but are sup- pressed with the aid of an English fleet. 1864. Denmark. Christian VIII. declares the whole Danish State indivisible and heritable by females as well as males. This decree excludes the Duke of Augustenburg and disappoints the Duchies, which aspire to become a separate province under a German prince. 1865. Poland. A revolt of the peasants in Galicia takes place, and the republic of Cracow is annexed by Austria, in violation of the Treaty of Vienna. 1866. America. On a proposal to buy land from Mexico, Wilmot carries a proviso that slavery shall be forbidden in any territory thus acquired. Owin^, however, to opposition in the Senate, an Appropria- tion Bill is passed without the slavery proviso. 1846] CULTURE 375 292S. Art. VioUet le Due begins the restoration of Notre-Dame at Paris, and revives Gothic art. Day's Treatise on Harmony. 29^4. Archaeology. Layard explores Nineveh. ^2S, History. Carlyle's Letters and Speeches of Cromwell. Thiers' History of the Consulate and Empire. B926, Economics. Bastiat's Sophismes Economiques defends laissez- faire. fB927. Education. Peel founds Queen's Colleges in Ireland for unsec- tarian education for the laity. 2928. Agricnltnre. The General Enclosure Act is passed. 2929. Geography. Abbd Hue enters Thibet, and reaches Lhassa. 2930. Deaths. Jackson, A. W. Schlegel, Sydney Smith. 2931. Bng. Ch. The Evangelical Alliance is formed to oppose 1-1040 Romanism, Puseyism and rationalism. Many Americans, French ■- and Germans join, and several conferences take place abroad. Holyoake founds the National Secular Society. 2932. French Ch. The Virgin is believed to appear at La Salette. 2933. German Ch. Baur places the Gospels m the second century and declares that the original gospel was an Ebionite Gospel of the Hebrews, which 'Matthew' combined with some more liberal document: Luke was a Pauline protest against Judaism, but was later supplemented by Ebionite or Jewish hands ; Mark was an adapter of Matthew and Luke ; and Paiil expanded a Jewish Messiah into an universal teacher. 2934. Italian Ch. Kosmini's Wounds of the Church complains that the clergy lack education, that clergy and people may not cnoose their bishops, etc. Gioberti's Modem Jesuit replies to Curci's attack on his Primacy of the Italians. 2935. Eng. Lit. Browning marries Elizabeth Barrett. The Daily News, the first cheap daily paper, begins to appear. 2936. German Lit. Freiligrath's revolutionary cycle of songs, Qa ira. 2937. Italian Lit. D' Azedio attacks the Papacy and the revolutionists, and urges the princes to adopt a national policy. 2938. Hungarian Lit. Maurus Jokai's first novel. 2939. Russian Lit. Grigorovich's The Village. 2940. Science. Independently of Adams, Leverrier infers a planet beyond Uranus, and Galle of Berlin, whom he asks to verify it, finds it close to the place indicated. The planet receives the name of Neptune. Weber's Determination of Electro-dynamic forces explains the laws of action of electric currents and of the resistance of conductors. 2941. Art. Mendelssohn produces the Elijah at Birmingham. Berlioz* Faust. 2942. Philology. Bawlinson's work on the Persian cuneiform inscrip- tions at Behistan opens up Assyrian history. 876 POLITICS [1846 War with Mexico arises over the question of the boundaries of Texas. To propitiate the North, Polk claims Oregon, and arranges with England to fix the boundary at the 49th paralleL 1867. Asia. The Sikhs are defeated at Aliwal (Jan.), and their en- trenched camp is stormed (Feb.). By the Treaty of Lahore, England obtains territory beyond the Suilej. Henry Lawrence is appointed British BrCsident. 1868. En^and. Short service of 10 or 12 years is introduced, 1^347 with option of joining for 21 years. ^ Rothschild is elected for the City of London, the fii^t Jewish member of Parliament. 1869. Ireland. A large emigration takes place, which, with the famine, reduces the population by three millions. 1870. Prance. The extension of the franchise is demanded by Odilon Barrot, Lamartine, Ledru-RoUin, Gamier-Pag^, and by the Sodalists Louis Blanc, Blanoui, and Marrast. 1871. Germany. The King of Prussia is forced to call a Landtag ; but he declares that he will never grant a constitution, and dissolves the Diet. 1872. Belgium. The Liberals, Rogier and Frfere-Orban, take office. 1873. Italy. Marie Louise of Parma dies, Parma passes to Lucca, and Modena receives part of Tuscany. Riots ensue, and the Austrians occupy the town of Ferrara. Charles Albert introduces liberal reforms in Piedmont^ and Cavour edits the Risorgimento. 1874. Switzerland. War breaks out, the Sonderbund is routed and dissolved, and the Jesuits are expelled. 1875. Portugal. England, France and Spain end the civil war. 1876. Hungary. Szechenyi approves proposals for reform made by Vienna; but Deak, Eotvos, and Kossuth demand more far-reaching changes. 1877. America. Gold is discovered in California, 1878. Afirica. Abd-el-Kader surrenders conditionally. British Kaffraria is created. 1879. Asia. Sattara is annexed to British India by Lord EUenborough, though Bartle Frere has recognised a new Rajah, and in violation of the treaty of 1819. 1847] CULTURE 377 294s. Philosophy. Hamilton's edition of Reid expounds the theory of relativity. Theodor Waitz' Foundation of Psychology continues the teaching of Herbart. 2944. Geography. The Hakluyt Society is founded. ^946. History. Grote's History of Greece. Herculano's History of Portugal. ^946. Deaths. Bessel, List, Tegner. ^94T» Eng. Ch. Lord John Russell's appointment of Hampden [^^347 to the Bishopric of Hereford raises a storm of protest. *- F. W. Robertson becomes incumbent of Trinity Chapel, Brighton. ^48. Scotch Ch. The United Presbyterian Church is formed from the union of the Secession Church of 1733 and the Relief Church of 1752. ^49. German Ch. Hundeshagen's Vital Questions for German Pro- testantism discusses its relation to the political and intellectual questions of the time. Baur's History of Dogma teaches that dogmas develope logically, and that movements are greater than individufus. ^60. American Ch. Salt Lake City is founded by the Mormons, led by Young. Their colony is made a Territory, 1850, and silver is found in Utah, 1870. Ward Beecher becomes minister of a Congregational church in Brooklyn. ^51. Asiatic Ch. The Pope revives the Patriarchate of Jerusalem. 29S2. Eng. Lit. Chariotte Bronte's Jane Eyre. Bohn's Libraries begin to appear. S9SS. American Lit. Emerson's Poems. 2954- Italian Lit. Salvini, a pupil of Modena, begins to act. 2955. Russian Lit. Herzen's Wiio is to Blame ? ^vocates a modifica- tion of the marriage laws. 2956. Science. Simpson uses chloroform as an anaesthetic in operations. William Thomson introduces the modem method of treating electro- magnetism, i.e., illustrates electro-magnetic forces by the distortions of an elastic solid. Joule lectures on the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat, which he discovers independently of Mayer, and which is at once adopted by William Thomson. Helmholtz reads an essay on the Conservation of Energy before the Physical Society of Berlin, without being aware of the work of Mayer. Von Staudt and Steiner create modem synthetic geometry, a system without reference to number or magnitude. Herschel publishes his Observations made at the Cape. 2957. Art. Kaulbach's six studies of the Histoiy of Man (Berlin). Vischer's Aesthetic elaborates the ideas of Hegel, and declares that beauty results from the union of the real and tne ideal, i.e. through the partial departure of each individual firom the type. 2958. Philology. Lassen's Indian Antiquity. 378 POLITICS [1848 1880. En^and. Fergus O'Connor summons a Chartist meeting rj^o^g to carry a monster petition to Parliament About 25,000 meet, >> but are stopped by special constables, and Chartism as an organised political movement comes to an end. 1881. Ireland. Russell carries the Encumbered Estate Act. A Treason Felony Act punishes seditious writing and speaking. Smith O'Brien attacks a police station, is captured and transported, and Mitchell, editor of the United Irishman, is convicted. 1882. France. A proi)osed Reform banquet is prohibited, and riots ensue. Guizot resigns (Feb. 22), and Thiers, who is invited to form a ministry, insists on electoral reform. The King abdicates to his grandson and escapes to England. A republic is proclaimed, and a pro- visional government is formed by Lamartine, Arago, Ledru-Romn, Gamier-Pag^s and Crdmieux. Lamartine announces to foreign states that France is peaceful. Louis Blanc is made president of a commission for the 'organisation of labour/ and erects national workshops. A national assembly, elected by universal suffrage, appoints an executive, iVom which the Socialists are excluded. An attack on the Chamber is repulsed, and the Socialist leaders are imprisoned or fly. Unmarried workmen of 18 to 25 are ordered to enter the army, and all others are to leave the capital (June 22). The decree is resisted, Cavaignac is appointed Dictator, and four days of fierce conflict follow. On the su^ pression of the revolt, the workshops are abolished. A Constitution is formed with a single Chamber, and a President elected b^ manhood suffrage for four years. Louis Napoleon receives 5^ million votes against 1| million cast for Cavaignac. 1883. Italy. Sicily obtains a Constitution, but establishes a provisional government (Jan.), and deposes the King (April). Piedmont, Naples, and Tuscany also obtain Constitutions. On the news from Paris, the Pope forms a ministry under Antonelli. On the news of a revolution in Vienna, Milan and other Lombard towns revolt ; the Duke of Parma is expelled, and Venice proclaims a republic under Manin. Charles Albert declares war against Austria (March 25), and marches against Radetzky. Lombardy is annexed to Piedmont, Venice declares herself incorporated with them, and Tuscany, the Pope and Naples send troops. The Pope and Ferdinand, however, quickly recall their armies, and tiie latter over- throws the Neapolitan and Sicilian Constitutions. Charles Albert ia defeated by Radetzky at Custozza (July), Milan is recaptured, Charles Albert signs an armistice, withdrawing to Piedmont, and lladetzky turns to the siege of Venice. In Rome the ministers resign, finding that the Pope does not assent to their measures, and Rossi forms a new ministry, but is murdered. The Pope flees to Gaeta, and declares everything done in his absence void (Nov.). A Constituent Assemblv, in which Mazzini and Garibaldi sit, decides that the Pope has forfeited his temporal power. The Duke of Tuscany also flees, and a republic is proclaimed under Guerrazzi. 1884. Qermsmy. The King of Prussia promises a free press, a Landtag and the formation of a closer German federation (March 9). The popu- lace demands abo the dismissal of the soldiers ; and, after a fierce fight 1848] CULTURE 379 2959. History. Lamartine's Histoire des Girondins. 2960. Anthropology. Boucher de Perthes publishes an account of the stone weapons found by him in the gravel-pits at Abbeville. 2961. EoonomiCB. Haxthausen visits Kussia, at the request of Nicholas, and describes its land system. 2962. Geography. Franklin, sent by the British Government to dis- cover a North- West passage, 1845, is lost. 2963. History. Ferrari's Philosophie de I'Histoire points out the difficulties in any theory of teleology. 2964. Social. Marx and Engels issue a Communist Manifesto, urging the j^oletariat of all countries to unite. Tlie Ten Hours' Bill for women and children of 13 to 18 is carried. Father Eolping institutes clubs for Catholic working-men in Cologne ; at his death, 1865, over 400 exist in the Rhine count]^. 2965. Deaths. Chalmers, O'Connell, Vinet. 2966. Eng. Ch. Robert Wilberforce's Doctrine of the Incama- ^343 tion. •■ Fronde's Nemesis of Faith illustrates the reaction from the Oxford movement, and leads to the resignation of his Fellowship at Oxford. 2967. French Ch. Many liberal Catholics enter the National Assembly and help Napoleon to the Presidency. Falloux, Minister of Education, introduces a bill, with the approval of Thiers, by which Catholics may be educated at primary and seconda^ Catholic schools, but can only obtain degrees at the University. The compromise is accepted by Montalembert but fiercely attacked by Veuillot. Frederick Monod founds the ^lise Libre in Paris, seceding from the National Church, the Synod refusing to acknowledge the divinity of Christ. Adolphe Monod remains ; and the Church soon becomes more orthodox. 2968. Qerman Ch. The Pius Verein is founded at Mainz to advocate clerical direction of education, and independence of State control. A meeting of Bishops held at Wiirzburg resolves to work for the abrogation of the sovereign's placet, for the full independence of ecclesiastical legislation, administration and jurisdiction and the control of education. Manv of the desires expressed at Wiirzburg are fulfilled by Concordats concluded in the followmg years with the states of Southern Germany. 2969. American Ch. Members of the Fox family, in New York State, become mediums and profess to hold communication with the departed. Andrew Jackson Davis publishes Nature's Divine Revelation, alleged to be dictated in a clairvoyant trance. Spiritualism spreads rapidly throughout the States, and is introduced into England by Home, 1855. 2970. Italian Ch. Ventura recommends the surrender of the Temporal Power. 2971. Afrioan Ch. Gray becomes Bishop of Cape Town. 2972. Eng. Lit. The Bacon-ShaJcspere controversy is begun by Hart's scepticism as to Shakspere. The authorship of Bacon is suggested by 380 POLITICS [1848 in Berlin, the Einff orders the troops to withdraw, dismisses the ministry, and amnesties pditical prisoners. A National Assembly meets, the almost republican Left led by Waldeck and Jacoby, the Left Centre by Rodbertus and Schulze-Delitzsch, the Centre by Unnih, and the Right by Bismarck (May). The Assembly, however, is dissolved (Dec), and a new Constitution is issued, with two Chambers chosen by indirect election. Baden grants a liberal Constitution (March), and is followed by Bavaria, where Louis abdicates, and by Saxony and Hanover. The Liberal leaders meet at Heidelberg ^March), and invite past and present members of constitutional assemolies to a Vorparlament, which meets at Frankfort, and decrees a federal Parliament with a single head and two Chambers. The Parliament opens at Frankfort, with Gagem as President [(May). Blum contends for a federal republic ; Dahlmann, Gervinus, Amdt, Jacob Grimm demand a constitutional Empire under the King of Prussia. The Assembly discusses and publishes the Fundamental Rights of the German People. 1885. Denmark. Christian dies, and Frederick VH. issues a liberal Constitution. When the news of the German revolution arrives, Schleswig and Holstein demand admission to the Bund, and a joint Constitution on the German model. A provisional government is formed under the Duke of Augustenburg. Frederick sends an army against the Duchies, which obtain help n-om Prussia. 1886. Austria. The populace of Vienna demand the fall of Mettemich, who escapes to England (March). The Emperor promises a Constitu- tion, and appoints Deak, Batthyany and Kossuth ministers for Hungaiy. They abolisn feudalism, introduce responsible government, and extend the franchise. Jellacic tells the Croatians that if Hungary becomes independent, she will oppress them. They therefore induce the Emperor to make Jellacic Governor-General. The Magyars repulse Jellacic's troops, and Kossuth organises a riot in Vienna to prevent the departure of reinforcements. Ferdinand flees (Ma^), but Jellacic marches to Vienna and saves the dvnasty. A Constituent Assembly meets, and the Emperor returns. Jellacic and Windischgratz open the campaign against the Hungarians. Another insurrection breaKS out in Vienna, and the Emperor again flees ^Oct.). The capital is retaken, Schwarzen- berg forms a reactionary ministry, and the Emperor abdicates in favour of his nephew, Francis Joseph. 1887. Bon^nia. The Czechs meet at Prague, and demand autonomy (March) ; but the meeting is broken up and the city surrenders to WindischCTatz (June). A Slavonic Congress is held at Prague, under the presidency of Palacky. 1888. Poland. Prussia and Austria crush revolts in Warsaw and Cracow. 1889. Holland. Thorbecke obtains a liberal Constitution. 1890. Switzerland. A National Council and a Council of Estates, with a federal executive appointed by them, and a federal court are created. Neufch^tel throws o£f allegiance to the Kin^ of Prussia. 1891. Amerioa. Mexico relinquishes Texas, New Mexico, California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming. 1892. Africa. The Orange Free State is conquered at Boomplatz. 1848] CULTURE 381 Miss W. H. Smith, 1856, and reasserted b^ Nathaniel Holmes, an American lawyer, 1866, and by the Bacon Society in Loudon, 1885. Thackeray 8 Vanity Fair is completed. Thackeray's Book of Snobs. Mrs Gaskell's Mary Barton, one of the earliest studies of the life of the poor. Aytoun's Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers. Matthew Arnold's first poems. 2975. French Lit. Murger's Scenes de la Vie de Boh^me. 2974, Qerman Lit. Hoffinann founds and edits the Kladderadatsch, a comic journal 2976. Spanish Lit. Juan Valera's Pepita Jimenez marks the renais- sance of the novel. 2976, American Lit. Lowell's Biglow Papers. 2977, Science. Du Bois Reymond's Animal Electricity. William Thomson establishes the absolute thermodynamic scale of temperature. 2978, Art. Holman Hunt, MiUais, and Rossetti found a brotherhood. In the Academy of 1849, Millais exhibits Ferdinand and Isabella. The Germ is started in 1850, but ceases after the appearance of four numbers. The new school is encouraged by Ford Madox Brown and eulogised by Buskin. Watts' raolo and Francesca. Niels Gade returns from Leipsig and fosters Norwegian music. 2979, Archaeology. Dennis' Cities of Etruria. 2980, History. Macaulay's History of England from the accession of James II. defends the Whig theory of government and depicts William III. as a hero. 2981, Economics. Mill's Principles of Political Economy present a systematic exposition of Ricardo's ideas, but draw a marked distinction lietween production, the laws of which are based on unalterable natural facts, ana distribution, the methods of which may readily be changed. In subsequent editions, Mill verges steadily towards socialism. 2982, Philology. Ritschl's edition of Plautus. Grimm's History of the German Language. 2983, Geography. Erapf and Bebmann di£MX)ver the mountains Eenia and Kilimanjaro. 2984, Social. Gabet founds Icaria, a communistic settlement in America. The Public Health Act is passed, the first sanitary measure on the Statute Book. Slavery is abolished in French colonies. Caird's High Farming the best Substitute for Protection. Maurice, Ludlow, and other Christian Socialists attempt to found a Cooperative movement. 2986. Deaths. Berzelius, Bahnes, Bielinsky. Chateaubriand, Gorres. Hermann, G. Stephenson. 382 POLITICS [1849 1893. England. The Navigation Laws are repealed. hmr 1894. Italy. Charles Albert is crushed by Badetzky at Novara, ^ ^ and abdicates to his son, Victor Emanuel (March). A revolt in Lombardy is suj)pre8sed by Haynau. The status quo before the war is restored, and Victor Emanuel pays an indemnity. Venice is forced to capitulate, and Sicily is reduced by Ferdinand. A Republic is proclaimed in llome, and Mazzini assumes control. Oudinot, sent by the French Government to the Pope's aid, lands at Civita Vecchia (April), and takes Rome after a long siege (July). 1895. Qermany. The hereditary headship is refused by Prussia, and the Austrians withdraw from the Assembly. Frederick William forms the Dreikonigsbund with Hanover and Saxony, and is joined by 24 minor states. Austria, however, induces Prussia to join in a Com* mission at Frankfort for interim management of the Confederation. Hanover breaks away, and Saxony shows ner desire to do so. Prussia suppresses revolts in Saxony, Baden, and the Palatinate. 1896. Denmark. The Bund sends 45,000 men to aid the Duchies ; but a Danish victory at Fredericia leads to a truce, by which Schleswig is to receive a Danish government and the German troops are to be with- drawn. The Duchies are forced to accept these terms. 1897. Austria. A Constitution is granted, *by the Grace of the Emperor.' 1898. Hungary. Independence is proclaimed, and Kossuth becomes head of the Provisional Government (April). Bem and Goi^ei repulse Austria, which appeals to Russia. The Hungarians are defeat^ at Temesvar, Kossuth resigns, and Gorgei capituktes at Vilagos (Aug.). Batthyany is shot, and Szechenyi, Kossutn and Bem take refuge in Turkey, which, supported by England and France, refuses to surrender them. Hungary is deprived of all constitutional rights. 1899. Turkey. A revolution in WaUachia and Moldavia is suppressed, and Russia and Turkey jointly nominate the princes for seven years. 1900. America. Taylor secretly urges the settlers in Califomia to apply for admission to the Union as a free state. Texas claims a larger part of New Mexico. 1901. Africa. Cape Colony forbids convicts to land. 1902. Asia. A second Sikh war breaks out, and the whole of the Punjab is annexed, and governed by Henry and John Lawrence. 1903. England. The Queen sends a memorandum to Palmer- i-iora ston, demanding to be kept acquainted with the business of the ^ Foreign Office. Palmerston defends his policy in the Don Pacifico debate. 1904. Ireland. A Tenant Right League is formed. 1905. France. The Parti de rOrdre, headed by Thiers, Broglie, Mol^, 1860] CULTURE 383 £986, Bng. Ch. Faber founds the Oratory in London. r,^^ F. W. Newman's treatise on The Soul, written from the ^ standpoint of theism. Danish Ch. Martensen's Christian Dogmatics offers a philo- sophical explanation of each separate Christian tenet. £987. French Ch. Dupanloup is induced by FaUoux to accept the Bishopric of Orleans. £988, Qerman Ch. Canon Hirscher's Condition of the Church, an outspoken criticism of Jesuit influence and of the centralising policy of the Church, is put on the Index and provokes many replies. £989, Italian Ch. The Pope issues an Encyclical to the Italian Bishops condemning socialism and communism. £990, Church Hist. The Pope issues an Encyclical inviting the expression of opinion as to the advisability of a definition of the Im- maculate Conception. £991, Eng. Lit. Kingsley V Alton Locke calls attention to social problems and points towards Christian Socialism. £99£, French Lit. Chateaubriand's M^moires d'Outre-Tombe, a defence of his public life. Scribe's Adrienne Lecouvreur. Sainte-Beuve contributes Causeries du Lundi to the Constitutionnel, which react s^ainst the rigid methods of Nisard and develope purely literary criticism to its utmost extent. ^993, Spanish Lit. Feman Caballero's first novel, La Gaviota (The Sea-GuU). Ticknor's History of Spanish Literature. £094* Science. Fizeau experimentally determines the velocity of light. The construction of the Menai Bridge is undertaken. £995. Art. Ruskin's Seven Lamps of Architecture. £996. Archaeology. Lepsius' Monuments of Egypt and Ethiopia presents a report of an expedition organised by Bunsen and paid for by the Prussian Government. £997. Philology. Tischendorf 's edition of the New Testament, strongly influenced by Lachmann. Max Miiller translates the Rig- Veda. £998. History. Kemble produces the first trustworthy account of the political and social institutions of the Anglo-Saxons. £999. Social. Raifi'eisen institutes cooperative loan banks in Germany. In the following year, Schulze-Delitzsch founds credit associations for the working-classes. Both movements spread rapidly through the country. 5000. Deathfl. Chopin, Marheineke, Mehemet Ali. 5001. Eng. Ch, The Pope appoints Catholic Bishops to English n^^Q Sees, and a fierce storm of indignation is aroused. ^ Gorham, presented to a living by the Lord Chancellor, is refused by the Bishop of Exeter in consequence of denying the regenerative power of ^Baptism. The Bishop is upheld by the Court of -Ajches, but overruled by the Privy Council. As a result of this decision. Manning, Aubrey de Vere, and others join the Roman ChurcL 384 POLITICS [1850 and Montalembert, restricts the franchise, and compels the authors of articles in the press to sign them. 1906. Italy. The Pope returns to Rome, abandons all his reforms, and makes Antonelli Secreta^ of State. A French garrison remains. 1907. Qermany. The King of Prussia grants a new Constitution. Beust forms a scheme of a Middle Germany, and Saxony, Bavaria and Wurtemberg ally. A Parliament of the Qerman Union meets at Erfurt, to form a Con- federation in opposition to Austria (March). In reply, Austria sum- mons the old Bundestag to Frankfort (May). A rupture is brought within sight by an insurrection in Hesse-Cassel (Sept). By Russian mediation, however, Prussia subordinates herself to Austria by the Con- vention of Olmiitz, by which she recognises the Frankfort Diet (Nov.). The two powers now unite in the pacification of Hesse-CasseL 1908. Denmark. Prussia and Denmark agree that Schleswig shall be governed by Denmark, and Holstein by an administrator. 1909. Greece. Palmerston blockades the Piraeus and seizes Greek shipping to obtain redress for an assault on Don Pacifico, a Portuguese Jew, bom in Gibraltar. The Greek government concedes his demands. France and Russia, the sponsors of Greek independence, are deeply annoyed, and peace is momentarily endangered by the action of the English Minister. 1910. America. Clay carries a series of Acts known as the Compromise of 1850. Califomia is admitted as a free state ; the slave trade is for- bidden in the District of Columbia; Utah and New Mexico become territories without restriction as to slavery ; Texas surrenders her claims to New Mexico ; a severe fugitive slave law is passed. The slave law is largely nullified by sympathisers in the North and by the ' Under- ground Railroad.' 1911. Africa. England buys the Danish forts on the Gold Coast. 1912. Asia. The Tai-ping rebellion breaks out under Hung, a Chinese schoolmaster, who promulgates a religious system tinctured with Christi- anity. He takes Nanking and Shanghai, proclaims himself Emperor^ and vainly attacks Peking. 1913. Australasia. Victoria is separated fi-om N. S. Wales, with Mel- bourne as capital. The Australian Government Act grants representative government to South Australia, Tasmania and Victoria. 1914. En^and. Locke King carries a motion for assimilating noei^ the county to the borough franchise, and Russell resigns. Stanley ^ fails to form a ministry, and Russell returns. Palmerston is dismissed for expressing his approval of the coup d^^tat to the French ambassador^ without consulting the Cabinet or the Queen. 1861] CULTURE 885 Pusey adapts Catholic books of deyotion, is censured by Bishop Wilberforce, and refrains from preaching for two years. 3002. Qerman Ch. The King of Erussia hands over the ahnost unfettered management of the Eyangelical Churches to a Church Council SODS. Italian Ch. The Civilta Cattolica is founded and edited by Curci, and becomes the or^an of the Jesuits and the Curia. The Sicc^i laws abolish the jurisdiction of the Church in Victor Emmanuel's dominions over heresy and sacrilege. SOO4* Asiatic Ch. The Bab, who has come forth as a religious leader in Persia, and attacked polygamy and the formalism of the Koran, is shot. Many of his followers are executed or tortured; but their numbers grow rapidly. 8005. Eng. Lit. Tennyson's In Memoriam. Mrs Browning's Sonnets from the Portuguese. Dickens' David Copperfield. Beynolds' Newspaper is founded. 8006. American Ut. Hawthorne's Scarlet Letter. 8007. Norwegian Lit. Ibsen's first play, Catalina. 8008. Science. Remak studies the embryology of the chick and fro^. Foucault finds that the velocity of li^ht in water is less than in air. His discovery finally discredits the emission theory of light. Mdloni investigates radiant heat, and proves that neat rays vary no less than visible rays. Clausius founds the kinetic theory of gases. 8009. Art. Liszt produces Wagner's Lohengrin at Weimar. 8010. Archaeolo£^. Mariette discovers the Serapeum. 8011. Philology. Lachmann's edition of Lucretius. 8012. Economics. Mario's (Winkelblech) System of Economics advo- cates Protection and the reorganisation of industry by the State and by Guilds. 8018. History. Laurent's Etudes sur I'Histoire de I'Humanit^ present the first picture of political development in connexion with the history of ideas. 80H, Education. A University Commission is appointed at Oxford, and urges the abolition of subscription, and the opening of fellowships and scholarships to all. Ewart's Act inaugurates Free Libraries. 8016. Geography. Galton explores Damaraland. 8016, Social. Titus Salt founds Saltaire works. 8017, DeaUis. Balzac, Calhoun, Oehlenschlager, Lenau, Neander, Peel, Louis Philippe, Wordsworth. 8018, Eng. Ch. Greg's Creed of Christendom. r^Qg^ Newman lectures on the Present Position of Catholics. ^ The Ecclesiastical Titles Bill is introduced and carried against the opposition of Gladstone and the Peelites. 8019, Eng. Lit. Carlyle's Life of Sterling. o. 25 386 POLITICS [1861 ^ • Molesworth moves to cease civil and militaiy expenditure on the colonies and to gnint self-government. 1915. Franoe. Changamier is dismissed because his regiments had not cried Vive TEmpereur (Jan.). Petitions, organised by Napoleon's agents in the provinces, demand the revision of the Constitution. The coup d'etat IS carried out (Dec. 2).^ During the night, Cavaignac, Chan- gamier, Lamorici^re, Thiers, Victor Hugo and others are imprisoned, the Assembly is dissolvedi and a new ministry is formed, including Momy and Rouher. Napoleon issues an Appeal to the People, pro- posing the election of an executive for ten years, and a Constitution modeUed on that of Brumaire. 250 deputies who meet and propose a protest are arrested. Bevolts take place, and are suppressed with bloodshed. The plebiscite declares in favour of a new constitution by a majority in the proportion of twelve to one (Dec. 20). 1916. Qermany. Prussia sends a representative (Bismarck) to the Frankfurt Diet^ and the return to the Confederation of 1815 becomes complete. Legislative decisions of the Diet need the confirmation of the States Chunbers ; executive resolutions become operative at once. The Fundamental Rights decreed by the Parliament of Frankfurt are repudiated. 1917. Austria. The Constitution of 1849 is abolished. 1918. Denmark. Austrian troops occupy Holstein. 1919. Montenegro. The ecclesiastical and political functions of the Prince are separated, and he is permitted to marry. 1920. Australasia. Hargraves discovers ^old in New South Wales. The importation of convicts, except to West Australia, ceases. 1921. West Indies. Cuba declares its independence of Spain ; but the revolt is quickly suppressed. 1922. Sn^and. Palmerston carries an amendment to a Militia moca Bill, and Russell resigns. Derby and Disraeli form a ministry ^ (Feb.). Derby declares protection shall be settled by the elections, and Disraeli firanldy approves free trade. The elections leave Derby in a minority. VilUers moves that the repeal of the Com Laws was ' wise, just, and beneficial.' Palmerston softens the motion, which is accepted by all but fifty-three, and the Conservative party is thus freed from the burden of protection. Disraeli's budget is aefeated, Derb^ resigns, and Lord Aberdeen forms a ministry of Whigs and Peelites, with Gladstone, Palmerston, Russell, Clarendon, Sidney Herbert, and Granville. A Bribeiy Act enjoins enquiry into corrupt practices. 1923. Ireland. Owin^ to the Tenant League, fifty tenant-ri^ht advo* cates are returned. When, however, Sadler and Keogh join Aberdeen, the licague falls to pieces. 1924. France. Napoleon banishes his opponents, and confiscates the appanages of the House of Orleans. The new Constitution is formaJly 1862] CULTDRE 887 Borrow's Lavengro. Macready retires from the stage, and Charles Eean aud Phelps take his place. 5020. French I*it Barbey d'Aurevilley's Une vieille Maltresse antici- pates the naturalistic school. 5021. German Lit Bodenstedt's Songs of Mirza SchaflFy. 3022. American Lit. Longfellow's Gdden Legend. S023, Greek Lit. Bangab^'s Marriage of Eutrulis revives Aristophanic drama. 3024. Science. The first submarine telegraph is laid from Dover to Calais. Schwabe proves the periodicity of sun spots. Ho&neister proves that phanerogams and cryptogams possess many common features. William Thomson independently proves the law of thermodjmamics discovered b^ Clausius. Perkin discovers aniline purple and creates the industry of coal-tar colours. Ruhmkorfif constructs a coil which produces sparks in air two inches in length. 3026. Art. Wagner's Opera and Drama attacks the work of Meyerbeer, and explains his theory of the relation of words and music. Buskin's Stones of Venice. Verdi's opera, Bigoletto. Tenniel begins to draw for Punch. 3026. Politics. Spencer's Social Statics, an attempt at Sociology. 3027. Education. Owens, a Manchester merchant, founds a college in his native town. 3028. mstory. Solovief s History of Bussia. 3029. Anthropology. Schoolcraft's Indian Tribes of the United . States. 3030. Social. The sale of intoxicants is prohibited in the State of Maine, by the efforts of Neal Dow. An Exhibition is held in Hyde Park, at the suggestion of the Prince Consort. 3031. Deaths. Earl Jacobi, Lachmann, Oersted. 3032. Eng. Ch. Owing to the eflForts of Bishop Wilberforce and r^ggg Lord Bedesdale, and on the assurance of Phillimore that no ^ legal bar exists. Convocation recommences. S033. French Ch. The Oratory is revived by Perraud and five other priests. Gaume's treatise on Holy Wat^r alienates the moderate Catholics. 3034.. Qerman Ch. The Eisenach biennial conference is instituted, consisting of representatives of the Protestants in each state. Several of its suggestioDS are adopted by the legislatures. By its direction, a revision of Luther's Bible is made. 3036. Spanish Ch. The Pope accepts some of the changes of 1836. 25—2 \ 888 POLITICS [1852 issued (Jan.). In the autumn Napoleon makes a ^rand tour through the provinces, and on his return arranges a plebiscite by which he is chosen hereditary Emperor. 1925. Cfrennany. Hesse-Gassel obtains a Constitution. 1926. Italy. Gavour becomes Premier in Piedmont, succeeding D'Azeglio. 1927. Denmark. Holstein is delivered to the Danes with the vague condition of 'respecting the rights of the duchies.' The Treaty of London, signed by the five great Powers and Sweden, guarantees the unity of the monarchy, and promises the succession of the monarchy and the duchies to Christian of Olucksbu^. It is recognised by Austria and Prussia, Hanover, Saxony, and W urtembeig, though not by the Bund. 1928. Turkey. Napoleon obtains the right of free entry to the Holy Sepulchre for Latin CSiristians, hitherto contested by Greek monks, and thereby alienates Russia. Montenegro and Herzegovina revolt. 1929. Australasia. A federal constitution is granted to New Zealand, at the instance of Sir George Grey. 1930. Afirica. The independence of the Transvaal is recognised by the Sand River Convention. 1931. Asia. The second war in Burmah breaks out, and Pegu, or the valley of the Lrawaddy, is annexed. 1932. England. Gladstone's Budget abolishes the duty on soap, rigco reduces 133 taxes, imposes a succession duty, and suggests the ^ gradual abolition of the income-tax. 1933. France. Napoleon marries Eugenie de Montijo. 1934. Italy. Mazzini instigates an unsuccessful insurrection at Milan. 1935. Turkey. The Tsar proposes to Sir Hamilton Seymour, the English ambassador, that if the Turk, 'the sick man/ dies, England sh^ take Crete and Egypt, the Sultan's European states become inde- pendent under Russian protection, and Constantinople be temporarily occupied by Russia. England, however, disclaims any desire to parti- tion the Turkish Empire. The Tsar orders the Sultan to recognise him by treaty as official protector of his Christian subjects. Encouraged by assurances of help firom Stratford de Redcliffe, the Sultan refuses the demand. Nicholas occupies Moldavia and Wallachia (June), and Turkey declares war (Oct.). Austria and Prussia refuse to employ coercion ; but England and France promise their aid if Russia refuses reasonable terms (Nov.). The Russian fleet destroys the Turkish fleet at Sinope (Nov.). The English and French fleets enter the Black Sea, and the Russian ships retire to Sebastopol harbour (Dec). 1.863] CULTURE 389 S0S6. American Ch. The first PleoAry Council of the Roman Church is held at Baltimore. 30S7 Asiatic Ch. The Shah of Persia is attacked hy the Babis, who are in conseaaence craeUy persecuted. S038. Ohurcn Hist Kichard Burton visits Medmah and Mecca. S0S9. Eng. Lit Thackeray's Esmond. S040. American Lit Mrs Stow's Uncle Tom's Cabin. 3041, French Lit Dumas' La Dame auz Camillas (an adaptation of the novel published 1848) introduces realism into the theatre, the ro- mantic drama having become as unreal as the classical The reaction is strengthened by the influence of Emile Augier. 30Ji2, German Lit Freytaff's comedy, The Journalists. 3043. Russian Lit Turgenief 's Sketches of a Hunter. 3044. Science. Spencer first uses and explains the word 'Evolution.' Stokes discovers the change in the reiiangibility of light. William Thomson discovers the law of the dissipation of energy. Hamilton publishes his lectures on Quaternions. Sabine, Wolf, and Gbutier announce the coincidence of the terrestrial- magnetic and sun-spot periods. 3045. Art. M^ryon's Etchings of Paris. 3046. Philosophy. Qury's Tneologia Moralis developes Jesuit casuistry. 3047. Philology. Mommsen's Inscriptiones Regni rf eapolitani. 3048. liB.w. Ihering's Spirit of Roman Law. 3049. History. Delisle enters the Manuscript department of the Biblioth^ue Imp^riale, and issues a series of palaeographical and bibliographical studies. 3050. Geography. Maclure achieves the North-West Passage. Barth explores Lake Chad and Hausa-land, and studies the languages of the central Soudan. 3051. Deaths. Bumouf, Clay, Froebel, Qioberti, Gogol, Turner, Webster, Wellington. S05fB. Eng. Ch. Archdeacon Denison publishes two sermons in n 553 favour of the Real Presence and is conaemned by an Ecclesias- '- tical Court, but axiquitted by the Privy Council Maurice is ejected from the Professorship of Theology at King's College, London, for questioning eternal punishment. Spuigeon begins to preach in London. 3053. Qerman Ch. Hupfeld points out the three sources of Genesis. SO54. Dutch Ch. The rope creates a Catholic hierarchy. 3055, American Ch. Munlenberg draws up a Memorial calling on the Episcopal Church to widen its activity. SO06. Eng. Lit. Kinsley's Hypatia. 3057. French Lit. Leconte de Lisle's Po^mes Antiques found the school of the Paruassiens or devotees of form. Gautier's ^maux et Cam^es. S058. Science. Hugo v. Mohl discovers protoplasm in plants. Joseph Hooper's Flora of New ZealandL 390 POLITICS [1853 1936. Greece. On the outbreak of the war, the Greeks attempt to seise Thessaly and Epirus, but are easily repulsed. 1937.^ America. The Treaty of Messilla cedes extensive territory to the United States, and reduces Mexico to its present limits. The Central American Federation of Guatemala, Salvador, Hondnras^ Nicaragua, Costa Rica is dissolved. 1938. /UMca. Cape Colony obtains representative institutions. 1939. Australasia. France takes possession of New Caledonia. 1940. Asia. An India Bill continues the powers of the Company till Parliament decides otherwise ; but the Court of Direction is to contain six nominees of the Crown, and the Civil Service is thrown open to com- petition. England annexes Nagpur. The first railway in India is opened. Salar Jung becomes Prime Minister of Hyderabad. Commodore Perry, of the U.S.A. navy, signs a treaty with the Shogun, opening Japan to American trade. 1941. En^and. Russell introduces a Reform Bill, which is ^054 withdrawn owing to the war. ^ L A Corrupt Practices Act makes necessary the publication of accounts after elections, and forbids i)a3nnents except through authorised agents. The Prince Consort is charged with unconstitutional interference. 1942. France. The Cr^it Foncier, established 1852 to provide kmd- owners and communes with cheap loans, becomes a state institution. 1943. Spain. O'Donnell revolts, and the Moderado regime of eleven years is ended. Christina leaves the country, and a constituent Cortes resolves to keep Queen Isabella on the tluone. Espartero becomes Prime Minister. Castelar becomes famous as an orator. 1944. Greece. English and French troops land at the Piraeus, and compel Greece to abandon the Russian alliance. 1945. Russia. England and France send an Ultimatum to the Tsar 2<*eb.), and declare war (March). The Russians are forced to withdraw om Moldavia and Wallachia, owing to threats of intervention from Prussia and Austria (July), the latter of which occupies the Principali- ties. The English and French fleets are sent to the Baltic, but ^ect nothing. The French and English armies land in the Crimea under St Amaud and Raglan (later, Canrobert and Simpson), defeat the Russians at Alma (Sept. 20), and blockade Sebastopol, which is defended by Todleben. A Russian attempt to cut o£f the communica- tion between the English base at Balaclava and Sebastopol leads to tiie charge of the li^ht Brigade (Oct. 25). The Russians are beaten back at Inkermann (Nov. 5) ; but winter inflicts terrible sufferings on the invading armies. 1946. America. Douglas moves the organisation of the Louisiana — H 1854] CULTURE 391 Claude Bernard studies the liver. Brunei constructs Saltash Bridge. 3069^ Art. Steinway b^ns to manufacture pianos. Brunn's History of Greek Sculpture. S060. Archaeology. Visconti superintends the excavations at Ostia. Brugsch organises an expedition to Eg3rpt. 8061, Fhilosophy. Eleutgen attacks the position of Gunther and Hermes, and stimulates the study of scholasticism. Gratry's Connaissance de Dieu. S062. Philology. Zeuss' Grammatica Geltica. Bothlingk and Roth's Sanskrit Dictionary. S06S, EducatioiL Thring becomes Head Master of Uppingham. 8064. Anthropology. Keller finds remains of the Lake dwellings at a depression of Lake Zurich. 8066. History. Mommsen's Boman History. SybeFs History of the French Revolution. 8066. Economics. Rodbertus' Letters to ▼. Eirchmann predict and approve a slow progress towards socialism. 8067. Social. The Mayor of Mulhausen founds a society of working men, who gradually become possessors of their own houses. Haussmann rebuilds large portions of Paris. 8068. Deaths. Arago, Von Buch, Diepenbrock, F. W. Robertson. 8069, German Ch. The New Lutheran^, led by Stahl, De- \i^^ litzsch, Vilmar, IQiefoth, attack pietism and individualism. '- Schweizer's History of the Central Dogmas of Protestantism. Herzog edits an Encyclopaedia of Protestant Theology. A Jewish seminary is instituted at Breslau. 8070, Italian Ch. The immaculate conception of the Vir^n, the definition of which is prepared by PassagUa and Perrone, is declared an article of faith. 8071. Danish Ch. Kierkegaard attacks and Martensen defends Christi- anity. 8072. Eng. Lit. Coventry Patmore's Angel in the House. Kingsley's Westward Ho. Sydney Dobell's Balder founds the so-called Spasmodic School, of whidi Alexander Smith and Bailey are members. 8078. French Lit. The journal Le Figaro is founded. 807 4. German Lit. Hermann Lingg's Poems. 3075. Swiss Ut Gottfried Keller's Der Qrune HeinricL 8076. Science. Murchison's Siluria, based on travels since 1827. Henry Smith studies the theory of numbers. Helmholtz explains the conservation of the sun's heat by shrinkage. Riemann's Hypotheses of Geometry conceive space as a particular case of a manifold. Hansen infers from the lunar theory the necessity of reducing Encke's estimate of the sun's distance. 392 POLITICS [1854 purchase north of the line of the Missouri Compromise and west d Missouri and Iowa as the Territory of Nebraska^ asserting that the Missouri Compromise was nullified by the Compromise of 1850. A B31 passes, creating Kansas and Nebraska Territories, in the enectation that Kansas wul become a slave and Nebraska a free state, and declares the Missouri Compromise 8ui>erseded by that of 1850. Some opponents of the Kansas Nebraska Bill issue an Appeal of the Indei>endent Demo- crats. Men of both parties settle in Kansas, and ciyil war ensaes. The opponents of the Nebraska Bill assume the name of B.epublican& 1947. Anica. De Lesseps plans the construction of a canal at Suez. Faidherbe extends the French colony of Sene^. The independence of the Orange Free State is acknowledged by the Bloemfontein Convention. 1948. Asia. Muravieff, Govemor of Eastern Siberia, seizes the Amor. 1949. Sn^and. Russell resigns on notice of Roebuck's motion mqcc for enquiry into the conduct of the war. The motion is carried, ^ and Aoerdeen resigns. Russell and Derby fail to form governments, and Palmerston is cnosen. The Peelites soon resign, and are succeeded by Russell and Comewall Lewis. 1950. Italy. Cavour loins the anti-Russian alliance (Jan.), and sends Sardinian troops to the Crimea under La Marmora. 1951. Russia. Nicolas dies, and is succeeded by his son, Alexander II. (March). A Conference takes place at Vienna, which Russell attends ; but Russia refuses to agree to limit her Black Sea fleet. After tiie unsuc- cessful storming of the Malakoff Tower by the French, and of the Redan by the English (June), a Russian attack is repulsed by the French and Italians on the Tchemaya (Aug.). The French storm the MalakofT, and the city is evacuated (Sept 11). Qeneral Williams surrenders E^ais, after a long defence (Nov.). The English and French fleets in the Baltic bombard Helsingfors. Proposals are made to Russia through Austria (Dec.). 1952. Qermany. The King of Hanover is compelled by the Diet to abolish the constitution. 1953. Denmark. Frederick VIL issues a 'Common Constitution,' though allowing the Duchies separate provincial Estates. Several members of the Duchies, however, protest, and the Bund declares that Denmark has broken the federal law. The King therefore revokes the constitution in regard to Holstein and Lauenburg. 1954. Australasia. Responsible government is introduced into all colonies except Western Australia. 1866] CULTUBE 393 3077. Philosophy. Euno Fischer's Historjr of Modem Philosophy. Renouvier's Essais de Critique, deeply influenced by Kant, attempt a general analysis of consciousness. Ferrier's Institutes of Metaphysics, a geometrical demonstration of Idealism. 8078, Ednoation. A Catholic Uniyersity is founded in Dublin, of which Newman becomes Hector. Maurice, Hughes, and Ludlow found a Working Men's College, in Great Ormond Street, London. The Hebdomadal Board of Oxford is replaced by an Electiye Council 3079. Philology. Cobet's Variae Lectiones. 3080. PolitiCB. Colins' La Science Sociale founds Belgian socialism. 3081. Archaeology. Beul^ discovers the Fropylaea of the Acropolis. 3082. History. Milman's Histoiy of Latin Cnnstianity. 308S. Geography. Burton and Speke explore Somaliland. S08J^ Social. The English usury laws are repealed. S085. Deaths. Beneke, Lamennais, Mai, Ohm, Schelling. 5086. Eng. Ch. Jowett edits the Epistles of St Paul. r^^^.^ The Society of the Holy Cross is founded. »- 5087. Atustrian Ch. Catholic Bishops may issue ordinances without the approval of the civil power, decree peiuJties, and supervise educa- tion, marriage, and the press. 8088. Italian Ch. The Sardinian Monastic law abolishes all Orders but those employed in preaching, education and the care of the sick. 8089. Church nist. The Pope condemns TraditionalisuL 8090. Eng. Lit Thackeray's The Newcomes. The Saturday Beview is founded. 8091. French Lit. GMrard de Nerval's Sonnets and Le B^ve et la Vie form the starting-point of the Symbolist movement Augier's Le Uendre de M. Poirier. 8092. American Lit Whitman's Leaves of Grass. 8098. German Lit Sche£fers Ekkehard. Freytag's Soil und Haben. 809 i. Science. Maur/s Physical Geography of the Sea. 8096. Art. Courbet introduces realism into French Art. Adelaide Ristori acts in Paris. Manns becomes musical director of the Crystal Palace. 8096. Philosophy. Buchner^s Force and Matter es^unds materialism. Bain's Senses and the Intellect explains associationist psychology. Herbert Spencer's Principles of Psychology builds on biological evolution. 8097. Philology. Renan's Histoire G^n^rale des Langues S^mitiques. 8098. History. Giesebrecht's History of the Mediaeval Empire. Droysen's History of Prussian Policy. Hefele's History of the Councils. Lewis attacks the credibility of early Roman History. 8099. Deaths. Charlotte Bronte, Gauss, Kierkegaard, RosminL S94 POLITICS [1856 1955. BnglancL A Committee of the Lords report against the tj^qca creation of life peers in the case of Sir James Parke, created ^ Baron Wensleydale. 1956. Turkey. Peace is signed at Paris (March). The fortificatioiis of Sebastopol are destroyed, and Russia promises not to re-fortify it ; no war ships are to enter the Black Sea ; the Danube is to be firee to navi^tion ; the Principalities are restored to their former position ; Bussia restores Ears to Turkey, and cedes part of Bessarabia to Moldavia. The Sultan undertakes to confirm the privileges of his Christian subjects, but the Powers are not to use this as a pretext for interfering with his domestic government. The Russian protectorate over theEastem Christians is abolished. The Porte is admitted to all the advants^es of Public Law, and to the Concert Two weeks after tiie treaty, France, England and Austria guarantee the independence and integrity of Turkey. In gratitude for Servia's neutrality in the war, the Powers agree that it shall remain under Turkish suzerainty, while its rights and privileges are guaranteed by the Powers. The Porte receives tribute, and retains the Dorder fortresses, but cannot invade the countzy without the con- sent of the Powers. Privateering is forbidden ; a neutral flag covers an enemy's goods, except contraband of war ; neutral goods, except contraband of war, are not liable to capture under an enemy's flag ; blockades, to be binding, must be effective. 1957. America. The Whigs and the Enow-Nothings disappear, and the Eepublicans and Democrats are left face to face. Sumner is assaulted in the Senate by a slave-owner. 1958. Asia. Oudh is annexed, on the ground of misrule. Some Chinese seize the Arrow in search of suspected pirates. Canton is therefore bombarded by the English fleet Persia sends an expedition against Herat, and England declares war. Troops are despatched from India. 1959. En^and. Cobden carries a motion condemning the policy 1-1057 of the Government in reference to the seizure of the Arrow ^ glarch). Palmerston appeals to the country. Bright, Cobden, and ilner Qibson lose their seats, and Palmerston secures a laree majority. A commercial panic occurs, the Bank Charter is suspended, and t£e Bank Charter Indemnity Act is carried. 1960. Germany. The Kins of Prussia becomes insane, and his brother William becomes Recent. Moltke becomes Head of the Staff*. 1961. Italy. Mazzini attempts to raise an insurrection in Genoa. Maximilian, brother of tne Emperor, becomes Viceroy of Lombardy and Venetia. 1962. Switzerland. Prussia renounces her claims in Neuch&teL 1867] CULTURE 396 3100. Eng. Ch. McLeod Campbell applies the ideas of Erskine rioRo of Linlathen to the Atonement. ■- 3101. Irish Chi Miall proposes the disestablishment of the Irish Church. 3102. Oerman Ch. The Catholic, an Ultramontane journal, directed by Eetteler of Mainz, and the Stimmen aus Maria Laach, a Jesuit organ, oppose the Munich School of Dollinger and Frohschammer. ^ Bunsen's Signs of the Time, a series of letters on liberty of con- science and the rights of the Christian Church. 3105. Eng. Lit. Charles Readers Never too late to Mend. 3104. Science. Helmholtz' Physiological Optics works out Young's colour-theory, and declares red, ^een and violet the three primitives. Bessemer invents a process for obtaining a new and cheaper steel for ndls. Siemens manufactures more ductile steel for boiler plating. Oppel applies Quenstedt's classification of the Jurassic to other countnes, and founds detailed stratigraphy by the recognition of life zones. . ^ S106. Art. Rubinstein's d^but as a pianist. Holman Hunt's Scape Goat. Bocklin's Pan. 3106. Philosophy. Lotze's Microcosmus supplements Weisse's idealistic monism with Herbart's pluralistic realism, and builds metaphysics on ethics. The change of monads does not result from an inner law but from real interaction. The seemingly transient is the immanent working within itself of one all-embracing Being. 3107. Philology. Qoldstiicker's Sanskrit Dictionary. 3108. History. Motley's Rise of the Dutch Republic. De Tocqueville's Ancien R^me. Le Blant's Inscriptions Chr^tiennes de la Gaule. 3109. Oeography. Burton and Speke are sent by the Geographical Society to discover the great Lakes, of which rumours abound. Burton discovers Tanganyika and Speke the Victoria Nyanza. Livingstone journeys from the Cape to Angola, and thence to the East Coast exploring the Zambesi from source to mouth. 3110. Anthropolo^. A skull discovered in Neanderthal represents a type lower tiian those found in the Quaternary deposits. 3111. Deaths. Hamilton, Heine, Lobatschewsky, Adolphe Monod, Schumann. 3112. Eng. Ch. The first great ritual judgments are given. ri857 The ecclesiastical Courte are deprived of their testamentary ^ jurisdiction and control over the law of marriaga 3113. Scotch Ch. Dr Lee introduces written prayer and a richer ritual into the Established Church; but the 'Innovations' are hotly attacked. 3114- Irish Ch. Father Burke, a Dominican, begins a series of missions. 3116. Oerman Ch. Gunther's works are condemned for dualism. RitschFs Growth of the Early Church combats the Tubingen school. 896 POLITICS [1867 1963. Russia. Herzen demands reforms in The Bell. 1964. America. In the case of Bred Scott, Chief Justice Taney^ de- clBfes that slaves are property and that Congress cannot legislate against x>ropert7^ and that the Missouri Compromise is therefore void, ^lis decision is taken to mean that Congress cannot exclude slayeiy from Territories. A financial crash occurs, and the Walker tariff is modified to rates lower thiui at any time since 1816. 1965. Asia. Owmg to Lord Dalhousie's policy of annexation, and to a belief that the new cartridges are greased with cow's fat, a mutiny breaks out at Meerut and Delhi, and spreads through Oudh, the North- West Provinces, and Lower Bengal (March). The descendant of the Great Moffhul is proclaimed Emi>eror. Sir John Lawrence, Governor of the Punjab, disarms the Sepoys in the Punjab by the aid of the Sikhs, and sends troops to besiege Delhi. Salar Jung keeps the Mohammedan state of Hyderabad loyal Sir Henry Lawrence holds out in the Resi- dency at Lucknow. At Cawnpore about a thousand English are besieged by Nana Sahib, and allowed to depart On reaching the boats they are shot, only four surviving (June 26). Delhi is taken (Sept 20), but Nicholson is killed in the assault. Havelock and Outram save Lucknow (Sept 26), which is finally relieved by Sir Colin Campbell (Nov. 17). England allies with France against China, and sends Lord Elgin as Envoy. The Chinese fleet is destroyed, and Canton is captured. JBefore any decisive contest occurs in Persia, a treaty is signed by England and Persia at Paris. Herat is to be evacuated, and slavery to be suppressed in the Persian Gulf. Ignatieff, a Russian envoy, is sent on a mission of military, political, and geographical reconnaissance to the £[hanates of Ehiva and Bokhara. England occupies Perim. 1966. .^rioa. Algeria is finally conquered by France. 1967. England. On Orsini's attempt to murder Napoleon, rioco Palmerston is induced by the Emperor to introduce a Conspiracy ^ to Murder Bill, which, in consequence of boastful French talk, is defeated. Palmerston resigns, and Derby becomes Prime Minister. Jews are admitted to Parliament Property qualification for members of Parliament is abolished. 1968. France. Orsini, a Carbonaro, plots to murder Napoleon (Jan.). Jules Favre gains notoriety by defending him, enters Parliament^ and becomes one of the leaders of the opposition. Napoleon is frightened, and meets Cavour at Plombi^res (July), promising to help Victor Emanuel to expel Austria from Italy. Victor Emanuel is to have Lombardy and Venetia, and Napoleon to take Savoy and Nice. 1969. Switzerland. A society known as Helvetia is formed by Fazy of Geneva to resist reaction and Ultramontanism. 1970. Montenegro. Owing to boundary disputes, a Turkish army 1868] CULTURE 897 3116, Eng. Lit. Geoige Eliot's Scenes from Clerical Life. Hughes' Tom Brown's School Days. Miss Molock's John Halifax Gentleman. 8117. French Lit Flaubert's Madame Bovaiy. Baudelaire's Fleurs du MaL 8118. Science. Joule perfects the kinetic theory of gases. Clerk Maxwell proves Saturn's Bings to be meteonc. Pasteur proves the vitalistic theory of fermentation against Liebig, who believes the process to be purely chemicaL Clausius explains electrolysis by dissociation. 3119. Art. Bossetti frescoes the Oxford Union, aided by William Morris and Bume-Jon&s. Schwind frescoes the Wartbuig with scenes from the history of the Lani^raves. The National Portrait GaUenr is founded 3120. Archaeology. Charles Newton discovers the tomb of Mausolus at Halicamassus. 8121. Philosophy. Taine's Philosophes Classiques attacks Cousin and the eclectic Idealists. On the death of Comte, Lafitte became the leader of the Positivist movement. Comte's ideas are spread in England by Congreve, Frederic Harrison, Bridges, Beesly, Cotter Morison and others. 8122. Philology. Furst's Hebrew and Chaldee Dictionary. 3123. History. Buckle's History of Civilisation traces progress to the advance in physical science. The Calendar of English State Papers and the Bolls series of Chronicles begin to appear. SI24. Law. Gneist's Modem English Constitutional Law. 8125. Education. The Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras are founded. Mary Carpenter, who has set up a Beformatory at Eingswood, 1852, obtains the Industrial Schools Act. 8126. Deaths. B^ranger, Cauchy, Comte^ De Musset, Bauch, Beschid Pasha, Manin. 8127. Eng. Ch. W. G. Ward rehabilitates the Dublin Beview r^g-g to oppose the Bambler, (later the Home and Foreign Beview) ■- whicn under Simpson and Acton represents the liberal Catholic movement. Mansel's Bampton Lectures, based on Hamilton's philosophy, argue from the impotence of Beason to the necessity of Faitn. 8128. French Ch. The Vimn is believed to appear at Lourdes. 8129. Russian Ch. The Stundists, who approximate to Lutheran doctrine and reject ceremonial, form a sect. 8180. American Ch. Hecker founds the Order of St Paul, aiming at a reconciliation of Catholicism with American civilisation. 3131. Church Hist. A Christian servant baptises the child of Mortara, 398 POLITICS [1868 invades Montenegro, and is annihilated. The boundaries are fixed by the Great Powers. 1971. Turkey. The Great Powers arrange that Moldavia and WaUachia shall be ruled by separate princes, chosen by the assemblies, and shall giy tribute to the Sultan. Both choose the same prince^ Alexando- usa, aad are allowed to form one state as Koumania. 1972. Rnsaia. Alexander emancipates the serfs on the roval domain. 1973. America. Lincoln debates with Douglas, and declares that the status quo cannot last Seward confirms the existence of an * irrepres- sible conflict' 1974. Asia. The Mutiny is finally suppressed by Colin Campbell and Sir Hugh Rose. The ^ast India Company is abolished, and India is transfeired to the Crown, and governed oy a Viceroy and a Secretary of State, with 15 advisers. Lord Elgin forces China to siga the Treaty of Tientsin, opening China to European commerce, establishing diplomatic relations, and obtaining reco^ition of equality between foreigners and natives and fireedom for missionaries. After the murder of some missionaries, the French fleet captures Saigon. By the Treaty of Aigun, China recognises the dominion of Bussia over the whole of Sibena. A massacre of Christians takes place at Jeddah, which is therefore bombarded by an English ship. The Sultan is forced to grant repara- tion. Treaties for amity and unrestricted commerce with England, France, Kussia, and the United States are signed by Japan, and Yokohama and Nagasaki are opened to trade. 1975. Africa. The Grondwet of the South African Republic provides for a President, elected for five years by burghers over sixteen, and a Volksraad. 1976. Bn^and. Disraeli announces franchise proposals, but is nocg defeated, and Palmerston returns to power with Russell and ^ Gladstone. Cobden refuses the Presidency of the Board of Trade. Volunteer rifle corps are formed. 1977. Ireland. The Phoenix Club, under O'Donovah Rossa and Stephens, forms the nucleus of Fenianism. 1978. Italy. At the New Year's Day reception, Napoleon regrets his relations with Austria, and begins to mobilise. His cousin, Prince Napoleon, marries a daughter of the King of Sardinia. Austria refuses to allow Sardinia to be represented at a congress to settle the affairs of Italy, and demands disarmament within three days (April 23). Cavour refuses, and Napoleon also declares war (May 3). The Austrians march on Turin, but are defeated by Victor Emanuel, who has been joined by Napoleon, at Magenta and Solferiuo (June). Tuscany, Parma, Modena, and Bologna are deserted by their nders. Napoleon, fearing a strong Italy, dreading a quarrel with the Pope, and learning the hostility of 1869] CULTURE 899 her Jewish employer, believiDg him to be dying. The boy recovers and is carried ofif to be educated as a Christian. His parents demand his restoration, which is refused by the Pope. S132, Eng. Lit. Tennyson's Idylls of the King. The Spectator is bought by K. H. Hutton and Townsend. S1S3. American Lit. Holmes' Autocrat of the Breakfast Table. 8134, French Lit. Feuillet's Roman d'un jeune Homme pauvre. 3136, Norwegian Lit. Bjomson's Ame. 3136, Science. Donati's Comet appears. Helmholtz enunciates his Vortex Motion theory. Wallace's paper on Natural Selection, based on study in the Malay Archipelago, and a paper by Darwin, both reaching the theory of Evolution, are simultaneously communicated to the Linnaean Society. Sorby's Microscopical Structure of Crystals. William Thomson invents a mirror galvanometer, which detects very small electric currents. 3137, Art. Titiens be^s to sing in London. Alfred Stevens designs the Wellington monument in St Paul's. Frith;s The Derby Day. 3138, Philosophy. Vacherot's La M^taphysique et la Science, asserting that as the individual is the real the ideal cannot be real, is attacked by Caro, Janet and Bavaisson. 3139, Philology. Benier's Inscriptions Bomaines de I'Alg^rie. Oppert detects ^Accadian,' a Scythic idiom among the cuneiform alphabets. SI40. Education. The Oxford and Cambridge Local Examinations are instituted. The government of Cambridge University is taken from the Caput. 3141. History. Carlyle's Frederick the Great Villari's Life of Savonarola. 3142, Deaths. Bobert Brown, Johannes Miiller, Bobert Owen. 3143. Eng. Lit. George Eliot's Adam Bede. r^^rg George Meredith's Ordeal of Bichard Feverel. *■ Fitzgerald translates the Bubaiyat of Omar £[hayyam. SI44* French Lit. Hugo's L^endes des Si^cles. Erckmann and Chatnan begin to collaborate. SI45. Russian Lit. Gontcharof's Oblomof, a realistic novel. 3146, Science. Zirkel investigates the lavas of the Eifel district. Eirchhoff and Bunsen discover that the dark lines of the solar spectrum arise from the presence in the solar atmosphere of substances which in a flame produce bright lines. Eirchhoff concludes that sodium, iron, magnesium, copper, zinc, barium and nickel exist in the fiun. Darwin publishes the Origin of Species by Natural Selection. The 400 POLITICS [1869 Germany, suddenly makes an armistice at Villa Franca (July 11), Sardinia to receive Lombard^, Italy to be federated under the Pope, and Austria to retain Venetia and the Quadrilateral. Cavour resigns in disgust. Victor Emanuel, however, makes Napoleon promise not to allow any forcible restoration of the refugee rulers. The terms of Villa Franca are confirmed at Zurich (Nov.). The Italian states are to be under the honorary presidency of the Pope ; the sovereigns of Tuscany and Modena to be reinstated ; the revolted Legations to return to the Pope. Modena, Parma and Tuscany, and the Legations, how- ever, declare in favour of annexation to Sardinia. 1979. Oerznany. The German National Union is formed by Bennigsen to substitute a strong executive and a national Parliament for the Bund. The Union dissolves, 1867. 1980. Russia. Shamil, a Circassian chief, surrenders to Russia. 1981. Servia. The Earageorgevitch dynasty replaces the Obrenovitch. 1982. America. John Brown appears at Harper's Ferry, Virginia, with 19 followers, and seizes the arsenal, but is captured and executed. 1983. AuBtralasia. Queensland is separated from N. S. Wales, with Brisbane as capital. 1984. AfMca. Spain attacks Morocco. The Senussi, ruler of the Mohammedan sect in the Libyan desert, dies, and is succeeded by the present ruler, who prepares for the holy war ^m his capital at Jerabub. Sir George (jrey suggests the federation of British and Dutch South Africa. 1985. England. A Bill abolishing the paper duty is rejected by n ooq the Lords. Palmerston therefore carries resolutions to render a *• similar occurrence impossible. Cobden, supported by Gladstone, arranges a commercial treaty with Napoleon, the duties between France and England being greatly re- duced. 1986. Italy. Cavour returns to power. Tuscany, Parma, Modena, and Romagna declare for Sardinia by a plebiscite, and are annexed. Napoleon obtains Savoy and Nice. Garibaldi sails with 1,000 volunteers to Sicily (May), where the ground is prepared by Crispi, and in two months subdues it. Francis II., of Naples, promises a Constitution ^ but Garibaldi crosses and enters Naples (Sept). Victor Emanuel joms Garibaldi, takes Capua, besieges Gaeta, ana enters Naples. Cavour annexes Umbria and the two Sicilies. Garibaldi aclmowledges the authority of Victor Emanuel, and retires to Caprera. The Pope fights for the Legations, and Lamorici^re is routed by Cialdini at Castel Fidardo (Sept.), and is compelled to surrender at Ancona. The Papal States, with the exception of the Patrimonium Petri, are annexed. 1987. France. Napoleon allows criticism of the speech from the Throne and the Budget. 1860] CULTURE 401 theory is embraced by Lyell, Hooker, Huxley, Haeckel, and others, but is attacked by Owen. Gegenbaur's Comparative Anatomy. Darwin's two chapters on geology in the Origin of Species point out the imperfection of the geological record and the yast time that has elapsed between the formations. Huxley's Oceanic Hydrozoa. SU7. Art. Millet's Ang^lus. Busch begins his sketches for the Fliegende Blatter, and is joined by Oberlander. Gounod's Faust. SH8. Politics. Lazarus' Psychology of Peoples. J. S. Mill's On Liberty pleads for individualism. Hare contends that all candidates who obtain a minimum number of votes should be elected members of parliament SlJi9, Economics. Carey's Principles of Social Science assume a rational system of beneficent laws, point out that land owes a large part of its value to man, and strongly advocate protection. 5150, History. Sybel edits a Historical Review. Maximilian of Bavaria creates the Historical Commission under the direction of Ranke. 5151, Education. A curriculum is framed by the Prussian Govern- ment for boys in the Realschulen destined to callings for which University studies are not needed. The study of Latin, however, is retained. * The Duke of Newcastle's Commission reveals the inadequate pro- vision for elementary education that exists in England. 5152, Philology. Tischendorf discovers the Sinaitic MSS. of the New Testament Max Miiller's Lectures on the Science of Language. S15S. Geography. Livingstone discovers Lake Nyasa. S15i,. Deaths. Aksakov, Austin, David Cox, De Tocqueville, Hallam, Alexander Humboldt, Edward Irving, Macaulay, Mettemich, Eiirl Bitter. S165, Eng. Ch. A series of Essays and Reviews, by Temple, n35o Jowett, Mark Pattison, Baden Powell and others are condemned ^ '- in Convocation, thourfi defended by Stanley, and are praised in the Positivist organ, the Westminster Review. At the meeting of the British Association at Oxford, Wilberforce attacks and Huxley defends the theory of Evolution. The English Church Union is founded to organise the High Church movement. Bradlaugh founds and edits The National Reformer. Norman Macleod edits Good Words. B156, Italian Ch. Dupanloup's Letter to La Guerroni^re replies to o. 26 402 POLITICS [1860 1988. Sweden. Norway protests against the Governor-General, and asserts its right to suppress the post. The King refuses to reoc^gniss the claim. 1989. America. In the Presidential election, the Northern Democrats Silt off on the demand to reccjgnise slaveiy as morally right and to oige )ngre8S to assume its protection in the territories. Abraham Lincoln is therefore elected. South Carolina summons a Convention, which dis- solves its union. 1990. Australasia. The Second Maori War breaks out 1991. Asia. The Chinese treacherously attack the English aqnadron ; Farkes, the English ambassador, is imprisoned ; the French Minister is insulted. France and England join their forces, Pekin is captured, and the Summer Palace burnt The Treaty of Pekin confirms that of Tientsin, and imposes a large indemnity. Christianity is to be tolerated, and the tariff is revised. The Druses attack and massacre the Maronites, and the Oiristians at Damascus are massacred by Mohammedans. Order is restored by a French army. 1992. Africa. Morocco is forced by Spain to surrender territory, and to transfer the control of customs in default of payment of the in- demnity. 1993. England. The abolition of the Paper Duty is combined rtoQt with the financial scheme of the Government and passes the ^ Lords. The Prince Consort dies. 1994. Italy. The surrender of Gaeta terminates the resistance of Ferdinand (Feb.). The first Italian Parliament meets at Turin (Feb. 18), and Victor Emanuel is greeted as King of Italy. At this moment, Cavour dies. 1995. Germany. William I. becomes King of Prussia, and a conflict over the reorganisation of the army breaks out. The Fortschritts-Partei is formed bv Waldeck, Virchow and KbxI Twesten, and demands economy and ministerial responsibility. 1996. Austria. Schmerliug becomes the head of a centralising cabinet, and the Council is changed into a central Parliament. Bohemia reAises to send deputies. 1997. Hungary. The old constitution is restored to Hungary ; but the Diet is dissolved for demanding full autonomy. 1998. Russia. Alexander frees the peasants, who become owners of part of their land by loans from the State. Immediately after the issue of the Edict, Milutin, its principal author, falls frx)m power. 1999. America. Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas secede (Jan.). A Convention of the Southern States meets at Montgomery, adopts a provisional constitution for the Confederate 1861] CULTURE 403 Napoleon's pamphlet, and advocates the maintenance of the temporal power. 3157. Asiatlo Ch. Russia builds a monastery and a house for pilgrims at Jerusalem. 8168. Frenoh Lit. Labiche's comedy, Le Voyage de M. Perrichon. Coquelin makes his d^but at the Oom^die frangaise. 3159. German Lit. Spielha^en's Problematic Natures. Fritz Keuter begins a senes of stories of peasant life, called OUe Eamellen, written in Piatt Deutsch. 3160. RnssianLit. Tolstoi's War and Peace. Ostrowski's The Storm and Pisemski's Bitter Fate introduce realism. 3161. Science. Sir John Brown inyents armour-plating for ships. 3162. Art. Macfarren's Rudiments of Harmony. 3168. FhiloBophy. Fechner's Psycho-Physics applies Weber's law of the relation between stimulus and change of sensation. 3164* Fhilology. Opi>ert's Assyrian Grammar. Qabelentz' Melanesian Languages. 3165. PoliticB. Mill's Treatise on Representative Government. 3166. History. Montalembert's Moines de I'Occident 3167. Law. Bruns' Pontes Juris Romani Antiqui. 3168. Geography. Speke and Grant discover the Victoria Nyanza lake to be the main source of the Nile. 3169. Deaths. Aberdeen, Amdt, Baur, Bunsen, Dalhousie, Heiberg, Lobeck, Szechenyi, Theodore Parker, Schopenhauer. 3170. Eng. Ch. 'Essays and Reviews' are attacked by Wilber- r^ggj , force in the Quarterly Review, and by Thomson, Mansel, *- Ellicott, Harold Browne and others. Wilson and Williams are suspended by the Court of Arches, but are acquitted by the Privy Council. Convocation formally' condemns the book. The first Church Congress is held at Cambridge. 3171. German Ch. Dollinger's The Church and the Churches first reveals his hostility to curiahsm. 8172. Italian Ch. Prota-Giurleo, a Dominican, attempts to form a National Church, demanding the election of the priest by the parish and of the Bishop by clergy and people, the abolition of celibacy, the circulation of the Bible, prayers in the vernacular, Communion in both kinds. The movement, however, does not spread beyond the South. Passaglia's work on The Temporal Power is put on the Index. S17S. Church Hist. Patteson becomes Bishop of Melanesia, but is murdered, 1871. 3174. Asiatic Ch. Chunder Sen joins the Brahmo movement, and works for education, the abolition of caste, and the raising of the position of women. 3175. Eng. Lit. George Eliot's Silas Mamer. 26—2 404 POLITICS [1861 States of America, and chooses Jefferson Davis President, and A. H. Stephens Vice-President (Feb.). Fort Sumter, in Charleston harbour, is med on and reduced (April). ^ Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas join the secessionists. Delaware, Maryland, and Ken- tucky, and, in 1862, Missouri join the North. Lincoln calls for 75^000 volunteers, and proclaims a blockade. The army of the North is driven back at Bull Run, in North Virginia (July). New volunteers are there- fore called out, and McLellan is put in command. Mason and Slidell, sent by the Confederates to seek the friendship of £njB;land and France, are taken from the English ship Trent, by an American man-of-war. Captain Wilkes is congratulated by Congress. Palmerston and Russell demand the surrender of the agents in a despatch, the wording of which is modified by the Prince Consort. Adams, the American ambassador, strongly urges submission. Seward advises a forei^ war in order to rally the South. After eight years' civil war in Mexico, Juarez, the leader of the advanced Liberals, enters the capital. He confiscates Church property, and decides to suspend payment to foreigners for two yeara England, France and Spain therefore claim compensation for the losses of their subjects, and send a joint expedition. 2000. West Indies. San Domingo is annexed to Spain. 2001. Afirica. The ruler of Lagos cedes it to England 2002. En^and. The Alabama is allowed to leave the Mersey r,g|.« under pretence of a trial trip, but in reality ordered by the Con- L*^*»^ federates. After doing immense damage to the North, it is sunk, 1864. 2003. Prance. Napoleon obtains Mentone and Roquebrune. 2004. Italy. Garibaldi plans to attack Rome, but is taken prisoner by Victor Emanuel's troops at Aspromonte. 2005. Germany. The Prussian Parliament attacks the military policy of the King and Boon, and is dissolved. A still larger Progressive om)osi- tion is returned, and the King prepares to abdicate, but is dissuaaed by Bismarck, who becomes chief minister. The Lower House refuses the military credits, and Bismarck governs without a budget, and speaks of the necessity of ' blood and iron.' 2006. Greece. King Otho is expelled, and the crown is offered to the Duke of Edinburgh. The ruling houses having agrc^ not to accept the crown, England chooses George, second son of the King of Denmark. Bepresentative institutions are established. 2007. America. Juarez promises, but fails, to pay the arrear of debt and an indemnity. England and Spain withdraw ; but Napoleon, who dreams of a Latin Empire, renews the attack. Mason and Slidell are surrendered by the United States. Admiral Farragut takes New Orleans, and obtains control of the lower Mississippi 1862] CULTURE 405 S176. French Lit. Eu^^nie de Gu^rin's Journals. 8177. Art. Gamier designs the Opera-house at Paris. Patti makes her d^but. William Morris begins work as a decorator and designer. Harpignies begins to exhibit his landscapes. 5178. Science. Pasteur finds anaerobic life. 5179, Education. Lowe determines the scale of Government grants. Spencer's Education, Moral, Intellectual, Physical, contends that scientific, rather than literary culture, is best adapted for gaining a livelihood and performing the duties of a citizen. 5180. Philology. Dahl's Dictionary of the Russian Language. Schleicher's Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European Languages summarises all work done since Bopp and Grimm, and makes each language stand out clearly from a common background. 5181, Economics. Walras urges that the St^te should appropriate rent. 3182, History. Dahn's Kings of the Germans. . 3183, Law. Maine's Ancient Law examines the ideas on which ancient civilisation rested. 3184* Anthropology. Bachofen studies the position of women in primitive times. 3185. Social. The American Civil War stops the supply of cotton, and leads to widespread distress in Lancashire. 3186, Deaths. Mrs Browning, Clough, Czartoryski, Lacordaire^ Savigny, Stahl. 3187, Eng. Ch. Colenso's The Pentateuch asserts that the Bible r^^^^ contains 'unhistorical' parts. He is urged by English Bishops i- to resign, but refuses, and Gray, Bishop of Capetown, deposes him. The Privy Council declares that uray possesses no jurisdiction, and the Bishop therefore excommunicates him. The Confraternity of the Blessed Sacrament is founded to teach the doctrine of the Real Presence. Father Ignatius (Rev. Joseph Lyne) attempts to revive monasticism, and founds Llanthony Abbey. 3188, Oerman Ch. Froschammer's works are placed on the Index. Hase's Handbook of Polemic against the Roman Church. 3189, Church Hist. With the approval of Convocation and of the American Episcopalians an attempt is made to unite the Anglican and Greek Churcnes. The Pope canonises the Japanese martyrs. 3190, Eng. Lit. Henry Eingsley's Ravenshoe. George Meredith's Poems ana Ballads. 3191, French Lit. Victor Hugo's Les Mis^rables. 3192, American Lit. Whittier's Snow Bound. 3193, Italian Lit. Witte's trajoslation of and commentarv on Dante. 3194, Art. Gilbert Scott designs the Albert Memorial, Kensington Gardens. Israels' The Shipwrecked Man, and The Cradle. 406 POLITICS [1862 SI [April). At the same moment, Grant drives the Southerners back at Shiloh. The Meirimac destroys some Northern frigates, bat is worsted by the Monitor. The Alabama leaves the Mersey, despite the repeated protests of Adams. Lee and 'Stonewall' Jackson defend Richmond, and repulse the Federals at Bull Bun (Aug.). Lee invades the North, and fights a drawn battle with McLellan at the Antietam (Aug.)* then with- draws and repulses an attack on Fredericksburg (Dec.). In Tennessee, Sheridan repels a fierce Southern onslaught at Stone River. ^ Congress issues paper money as legal tender ; the premium on gold reaches 200 p.c. ; and prices and rents rise, followed at a distance by wages. Gon^ss abolishes slaverv in Territories without compensation. 2008. Amca. France purchases Obok, opposite Aden, and obtains a foothold on the Guinea Coast. 2009. Asia. The Treaty of Saigon closes the war of France and Annam, which cedes parts of Cochin Chma. The remainder is annexed, 1867. Hart becomes Inspector of maritime customs in China. 2010. En^and. The Times accuses Cobden and Bright of Qg^^ preaching spoliation, Cobden retaliates by addressing Delano ^ oy name. 2011. Fxunoe. Thiers returns to public life, and forms an opposition. Napoleon invites the nations to a Peace Congress; but Russell refuses on behalf of Great Britain. 2012. Oennany. Austria proposes a meeting of princes at Frankfort to reorganise the Bund by creating a Directory of five princes, with the Emperor as hereditary president Bismarck persuades tiie King of Prussia to refuse to attend, and the scheme lapses. Parliament demands the dismissal of Bismarck, and is prorogued, and the press is muzzled. The Crown Prince disapproves the unconsti- tutional policy of the King and Bismarck. 2013. Denmark. Schleswig is incorporated with Denmark (March), but Holstein receives independent rights. Frederick dies, and Christian IX. succeeds, and is at once ordered by the Bund to separate the Ductirev. from Denmark (Oct.). The Bund sends an army (Dec), and Frederick of Augustenbur^, for whom the Holstein Diet declares, is proclaimed Duke of Schleswig-Holstein (Dec). 2014. Greece. The Ionian Islands are united to Greece. 2015. Rascda. Eatkof edits the Moscow Gazette, which obtains im- mense influence, and leads the reaction against liberalism. 2016. Poland. Poland revolts against conscription, and carries on ffuerilla warfjEore for two years. Prussia offers to assist Russia, which defies the remonstrance of the remaining Powers. The insurrection is ruthlessly suppressed by Muravieff, J 1863] CULTURE 407 3195. Arohaeology. Newton describes the Mausoleum of Halicar- nassus. 3196. Scienoe. Pasteur disproves spontaneous generations. The theory is revived by Bastian, 1876, and again refuted by Pasteur. ^drews proves the existence of a critical point in ^es. The Bonn catalogue, enumerating the stars visible m the Northern Hemisphere, is comjpeted by Argelander, a pupil of Bessel. Ramsay suggests that certain lake-basins were scooped out by glaciers. Darwin's Fertilisation of Orchids by Insects. 3197. Philosophy. Spencer's First Principles pronounces the nature of things unknowable, ana declares the persistence of force the key of the physical universe. Mill's Utilitaiianism expands the teaching of Bentham and his father. 3198. Philology. Bleek's Comparative Grammar of the South African Languages. 3199. History. Potthast's Bibliotheca Historica Medii Aevi. Friedlander's History of the Civilisation of the later Roman Empire. 3200. Economics. Lassalle's Working-Class Programme recommends a system of State Socialism, cooperative production to be begun imme- diately by State aid. 3201. Education. A college is founded in each American State for scientific and technical studies on an equality with classics. 3202. Geography. GifiFord Palgrave journeys through Arabia. 3203. Deaths. Biot, Buckle, Nessekode, Uhland. 3204. French Ch. Renan's Vie de J^sus. r,Qgo 3205. German Ch. At a Congress of Catholic scholars, held at •■ Munich, Bollinger, Reinkens, Schulte and others assume an Old Catholic position. A Protestant Union is founded by Bluntschli, Rothe, Ewald, Hitzig, Schenkel, Hilgenfeld, who desire a federation into a National Churph, the concession of further power to the laity, and disapprove subscription to creeds. 3206. Danish Ch. Strife breaks out between Grundtvig and Martensen. 3207. Church Hist. At a Catholic Congress at Malines, Montalem- bert demands toleration and the separation of Church and State. 3208. Eng. Lit. George Eliot's Romola. 3209. French Ut. Le Petit Journal, a hal^enny paper, is founded. 3210. Russian Lit. Tchemichevsky attacks current ideas on marriage. Nekrasof 's Frost the Red-nose. 3211. Science. Helmholtz' Sensations of Tone. Huxley's Man's Place in Nature interprets Darwin's ideas. Huxley demonstrates the separation of Reptiles and Batrachians. 3212. Art. The Salon des Refuse is found^, in which Manet and other Impressionists exhibit. Whistler's Symphony in White. 408 poLinca . [1868 2017. America. Lincoln issues a proclamation abolishing slavery (Jan.). Grant captures Vicksburff, and controls the Mississippi from source to mouth (July! Meanwhile Lee wins at Chancellorsmle (April), and again invades tne North, but is repulsed at Gettysburg. Two rams, constructed by Messrs Laird for the Confederate States, are stopped at the moment of completion by Bussell. The creation of national banks is authorised on the deposit of bonds of one-third of their capital with the Government, which issues bank notes redeemable in green-backs to ninety per cent, of the value of the bonds. The French capture Puebla, and the crown of Mexico is oflfered to Maximilian, brother of the Emperor of Austria. 2018. Asia. A French protectorate is proclaimed over Cambodia. Gordon suppresses the revolt of the Taipings. The French, English, and American fleets attack Japan. 2019. Italy. Napoleon agrees to withdraw the French garrison 1-1004 from Rome within two years, on condition that Victor Emanuel '- undertakes to defend the Papal States. 2020. Denmark. Austrian and Prussian armies enter the Duchies, and the lines of Duppel are carried by the Prussians under Prince Frederick Charles. An armistice is made, and Russell presides over negotiations in London. Prussia and Austria secede from the London protocol, according to which Christian was to succeed to the entire monarchy. The Bund desire the severance of the Duchies under the Duke of Augustenburg. Austria and Prussia are prepared to allow the personal union with a separate constitution. England proposes the division of Schleswig into a German and a Danish half; but the boundary cannot be fixed. The war is renewed, Jutland is overrun, the Danish fleet is defeated by the Austrian admiral, Tegethoff, Christian is forced to sign the Treaty of Vienna, ceding the Duchies and Lauenburg to Austria and Prussia to make their own arrangements (Oct.). Holstein is evacuated, and the two Powers establish a common government in Schleswig. 2021. Riusia. Zemstvos, or elective provincial governments, are insti- tuted. 2022. Poland, — On thn a^lTJce of Milutin, the peasants are made abso- lute owners of the land they occu|5jS4norder to separate their interests from those of the nobles, and to bind tEetlctothe crown. 2023. America. Sherman marches througS^^orda and captures Savannah, and Thomas destroys a Southern army^Jfashville (Dec). Grant meets Lee in the Wilderness, near Cha)!i|^^ville, and fighting lasts a month. Though Grant loses most heavily^^Mp^ks are refilled. 1864] CULTURE 409 5215. History. Gardiner's History of England in the 17th century. Einglake's History of the Crimea. 8214. Philology. Lane's Arabic Lexicon. Littr^'s Dictiona^ of the French Language. $216, Edncatioii. Kobert College is founded at Constantinople. 5216. Law. Harcourt discusses 'recognition' in Historicus' Letters to the Times. 3217. Anthropology. Lyell's Antiquity of Man. S218. Deaths. Jacob Grimm, Lyndhurst, Steiner, Thackeray, Whately. 8219, Eng. Ch. Newman's project for a Catholic college at ngS* Oxford is defeated by Manning and withdrawn. *- In answer to an attack by Eingsley, Newman writes his Apologia pro Vita Sua. 3220. Scotch Ch. Ministers episcopally ordained in Scotland are allowed to hold benefices in the English Church. 3221. Polish Ch. Catholic monasteries are dissolved, the bishopric of Chelm is united with the Russian Church, and the control of Catholic affairs is given to the Minister of Worship. 3222. Church Hist. The Pope issues a Syllabus, condemning 80 errors. It is defended by Dupanloup and turned to extreme anti- liberalism by Veuillot. ^From this moment, infallibility is widely discussed. 3223. Eng. Lit. Swinburne's Atalanta in Calydon. 3224. Science. Ooll explains the glaciations of the earth by variations in the eccentricity of its orbit. Clausius' Mechanical Theory of Heat predicts a more uniform dis- tribution of heat and a diminution of local movements, and discusses the kinetic theory of gases. Huggins proves certain nebulae to be gaseous. Bertrand's treatise on the Differential and Integral Calculus. 3226. Art. Du Maurier begins to draw for Punch. Nilsson makes her d^but. 3226. Archaeology. Bossi's work in the Roman Catacombs. 3227. FhUology. The Monumentum Ancyranum, relating to Augustus, is found. Munro edits and translates Lucretius. 3228. Philosophy. Vera and Spaventa introduce Hegelianism into Italy. Lance's History of Materialism introduces Neo-Eantianism. 3229. History. Fustel de Coulanges' La Cit^ Antique. 3230. Law. The Geneva Convention, accepted by all civilised countries, prescribes immunity for the ' Red Cross' League, and equality of treat- ment for the wounded in wariare on land. 3231. Geography. Samuel Baker discovers the Albert Nyanza lake. 3232. Anthropology. Mortillet and Quatrefages maintain the eidstence of man in Tertiary times. 410 POLITICS [1864 lincoln is re-elected President by an enormous majority, defeating McLellan, the candidate of the Northern Democrats, who are opposed to the further prosecution of the war. Francisco Lopez, the dictator of Paraguay, invades Brazil, which allies with Uruguay and Argentina. Paraguay is invaded and de- feated. Maximilian accepts the Mexican crown. 2024. Sii^aiid. At the General Election, Gladstone loses his n^Q^ seat at Oxford. Palmerston dies, and Russell becomes Prime *- Minister. 2025. Italy. ^ Florence becomes the capital 2026. Austria. To allay discontent, Austria re-establishes provincial diets, revoking the centralised Constitution of 1861. A Convention is made at Gastein (Aug.), by which both Powers are to retain the sovereignty of both Duchies in common, but Austria is to Erovisionally administer Holstein and Prussia Schleswig, while Prussia uys the duchy of Lauenburg, and controls the port of Kiel Austria accepts this arrangement unwillingly. Prussia begins negotiations with Italy, and Bismarck visits Napoleon at Biarritz in order to obtain his consent to the union of Italy and Prussia against Austria. 2027. Hungary. Transylvania is united to Hungary. 2028. Sweden. Representation by orders is replaced by direct repre- sentation. 2029. America. Congress passes the Thirteenth Amendment abolishing slavery, and sends it to the State legislatures for adoption. Sherman enters Columbia, capital of South Carolina, Richmond is taken by Sheridan, and Grant forces Lee to capitulate at Appomattox (April 9). Lincoln is murdered (April 14). Juarez revolts against Maximilian, and the United States demand the recall of the French troops. Chile joins Peru in war against Spain. 2030. West Indies. The negroes revolt in Jamaica, in part owing to labour regulations, and are severely repressed by Governor Byre, who is recalled and prosecuted. Jamaica is made a Crown Colony ; but the elective element is partially restored, 1884. 2031. Australasia. Convicts cease to be sent to Western Australia* 2032. Asia. Tashkent and its territory are annexed by Russia. 2033. Africa. Brand becomes President of the Orange Free State. 1866] CXTLTURB 411 3233. Social. ^ The International Association of Working Men is founded, and is shortly joined by Bakunin, an Anarchist. Le Play's R^forme Sociale advocates the paternal relation of the employer to employed and of the State to the weak, and exhorts the Church to aid the workers. Octavia Hill begins to reform low class tenements. 3234. Deaths. Hawthorne, Landor, Lassalle. 3236. Eng. Ch. General Booth begins work in East London. riftfiS The Church Association is founded to oppose ritualism. ^ Manning succeeds Wiseman as Archbishop of Westminster. Lightfoot's Commentary on Galatians. Puse/s Eirenicon declares the Papal supremacy, Mariolatiy, the veneration of saints and sacred pictures, the chief obstacles to reunion. Seeley's Ecce Homo. 3236. Eng. Lit. Matthew Arnold's Essays in Criticism. Buskin's Sesame and Lilies. Lewis Carroll's (Dod^son's) Alice in Wonderland. The Fortnightly Beview is founded and edited by 0. H. Lewes, who is succeeded by John Morley, 1869. T. W. Robertson's play. Society, is acted by Mrs Bancroft. 3237. Italian Lit. Carducci's Hymn to Satan. 3238. German Lit. A German Shakspere Society is founded by Bodenstedt, Delius, Elze, Leo and others, and a new translation is undertaken by Bodenstedt, Freiligrath and Heyse. 3239. American Lit. Artemus Ward (C. P. Brown) His Book. 3240. Science. Lister introduces antiseptic surgery in Glasgow Infirmary, excluding the bacteria of the air by germecide spray. Ludwig investigates the pressure of the blo^ Eekule explains the structure of benzene and the aromatic com- Eounds, and predicts the number of isomeric compounds producible *om benzene and its derivations. Pasteur discovers remedies for the diseases of silkworms. Plucker invents Line Geometry. 3241. Art. Wagner's Tristan and Isolde. Ford Madox Brown's picture. Work. 3242. FhiloBophy. Stirfing's Secret of Hegel. Mill attacks the philosophy of Hamilton. Green's Spiritual Philosophy explains the teaching of Coleridge. 3243. Philology. BiUmann s Ethiopic Lexicon. 3244' History. Dexter's History of Congregationalism. Gaston Paris' Histoire Po^tique de Charlemagne. 3245. Edncation. Duruy creates secondary education in France. Ziller's Doctrine of Instruction developes the ideas of Herbart, and adds the theory of 'concentration,' according to which the teacher must group the more abstract and difficult subjects round the simple and concrete. 3246. Anthropology. Lubbock's Pre-historic Times, Tylor's Early 412 POLITICS [1866 2034. England. Gladstone introduces a Reform Bill, which is ngAG attacked by Lowe. Russell resigns, and Derby succeeds. An >- agitation for reform begins, and a meeting forces an entry into Hyde Park. 2035. Germany. Austria encourages Holstein to demand Frederick as its ruler. Bismarck complains of * anarchy ' in Holstein, and allies with Victor Emanuel (April). Prussia is accused of violating the Convention of Gastein, and the Bund is asked to mobilise. Bismarck proposes to divide the Bund into a northern federation under Prussia, and a southern under Bavaria, Austria being excluded. The Estates meet in Holstein, which Manteufifel at once occupies, and the Bund resolves to mobilise. Prussia secedes from the Bund. Beust, of Saxony, who wishes a Central German Association, declares for Austria. War is declared against Saxony, Hanover and Hesse-CasseL Hesse-Cassel and Saxony are occupied without resistance, and the Hanoverian army, after a battle at Langensalza, capitulates. The Austrians are routed at Eoniggratz (July 3) ; the Bavarians and the Federals are defeated separately, and Prussia signs peace with Wurtember^ and Bavaria (Aug. 23). By the Peace of Prague (Aug. 23), Austria retires from the Bund, renounces claims to the Duchies, and cedes Venetia, which is to pass to Victor Emanuel. Prussia restores Saxony, which enters the North-German Confederation, promises to transfer Northern Schleswig to Denmark if the inhabitants wish, and annexes Hanover and Hesse- Cassel, with Frankfort and Nassau. The King is dissuaded by Bis- marck from annexing Bohemia. By secret treaties, Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, and Baden agree, in the event of a foreign war, to place their troops under Prussia. After the war, the Prussian National Liberals desert the Fortschritts-Partei, and support Bismarck. 2036. Italy. On the outbreak of war, Austria oflFers Venetia to Victor Emanuel, who, however, adheres to Prussia. The Italians are defeated at Custozza (June), and their fleet is almost destroyed off Lissa in the Adriatic (July). 2037. France. After the war, Napoleon demands Rhenish Bavaria and Rhenish Hesse as a reward of non-intervention ; but Prussia refuses. 2038. Anstria. Beust resigns his post in Saxony, and becomes Foreign Minister and Chancellor. 2039. Spain. Isabella appoints a ministry under Narvaez ; O'Donnell, Prim, and Serrano flee, and the Cortes are dissolved. 2040. Greece. Crete revolts, and proclaims its union to Greece ; but war between Turkey and Greece is prevented by the Powers, and the revolt is suppressed. 2041. Turkey. Alexander of Roumania is deposed, and Charles of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen is elected Prince by a pl^biscita The suze- rainty of the Sultan is reduced to a shadow. 2042. America. The President, Andrew Johnson, comes into conflict with Congress over the Freedman*s Bureau, the education of negroes, and the Civil Rights Bill protecting the negroes, and giving jurisdiction 1866] CULTURE 413 History of Mankind, and McLennan's Primitiye Marriage reconstruct primitive society. S2JiPf. Social. The Commons Preseryation Society is founded by Shaw Lefeyre and Fawcett. Jeyons' The Coal Question foretells the exhaustion of the coal-beds of England within a century. 82^8. Deaths. Cobden, Encke, Rowan Hamilton, Hurter, Wiseman. S2Jil9, Eng. Ch. At the instance of Manning, the Pope condemns rj^g^^ a Society of Anglicans and Catholics for reunion. ^ The Nationsd Secular Society is founded. S250, Qerman Ch. Graf repeats Vatke's hypothesis that the priestly legislation of the Jews was incorporated after the ExUe. S2ol. Italian Ch. Monasteries and benefices without the cure of souls are suppressed in Piedmontese dominions, present possessors retaining their establishments for life. 8252, Eng. Lit. Bancroft, Hare, Trying, and Wyndham appear on the London stage. S25S. Norwegian Lit. Ibsen's drama, Brand. 8254. Russian Lit. Dostoiefsky's Crime and Punishment. 8255. Science. Haeckel's General Morphology. Eoyaleysky's study of the deyelopment of Ascidians and of Amphioxus shews the necessity of extending Schwann's cellular theory to animal embryology. Owen's Anatomy of Vertebrates collects a mass of yaluable informa- tion, but suggests a yalueless classification. Delaunay explains outstanding lunar acceleration by lengthening of the day through tidal friction. Schiaparelli identifies the orbit of the Perseid shower of meteors with that of a comet. The Atlantic Cable is laid under the direction of William Thomson. 8256. Art. Ambroise Thomas' Mignon. Street, a pupil of Gilbert Scott, is chosen to build the new Law Courts in London. Bossetti's Beata Beatrix. 8257. Archaeology. Bough's Researches on Early Egyptian History. Captain Wilson first systematically suryeys the enyirons of Jerusalem, and excayations begin under the direction of the Egypt Exploration Fund. 8258. Philosophy. Villari's Positiye Philosophy and the Historic Method introduces positiyism into Italy, which is adopted by Ardigo, Mant^azza and Ferri. S259. History. Bryce's Holy Roman Empire. 8260. Economics. The Cobden Club is founded by T. B. Potter, who became its first Secretary. 8261, Geography. Rohlfs journeys from Morocco across the Niger, to the Gulf of Guinea, and later explores the Libyan desert Yule's Cathay and the Way thither. 414 POLITICS [1866 in the cases arising out of it to the Federal Courts alone. The latter is incorporated in the fourteenth Amendment, 'all persons are citizens of the United States, and of the states where they reside/ thus cancelling the Dred Scott decision. Fenians invade Canada from the United States. 2043. Asia, Yakub Beg rebels against China in Kashgar. 2044. Sn^and. Disraeli introduces a Reform Bill, in conse- rioAy quence of which Lords Cranborne and Carnarvon resign. The *• bill is made still more democratic bv Gladstone in Committee. In boroughs, the franchise is granted to householders and to lodgers who pay £10 rent and have resided for one year ; in the counties, to in- nabitants of houses at £12 rental. Lord Cairns obtains minority representation for three-cornered constituencies. 2045. Ireland. A Fenian rising is attempted, but easily suppressed. In Manchester some Fenian prisoners are rescued from a pnson van, and in the struggle a policeman is shot Three of the rescuers are hanged. A wall of Clerkenwell prison is blown up (Dec.). 2046. France. Napoleon grants the right of interpellation. Napoleon desires to buy Luxemburg from Holland, which is willing to sell. Prussia^ however, objects. The fortress is demolished, and the Grand Duchy is made hereditary in the Nassau Family, its neutrality being guaranteed by Europe. Napoleon visits the Emperor of Austria at Salzburg, and Bismarck makes known his treaties with the South German Statea 2047. Germany. The North German Federation is established. The executive power is given to the Prussian King, the hereditary president and general, aided by a Federal Council, presided over by a Cnancellor chosen by Prussia ; the legislative is vested in a Reichstag chosen by manhood sufirage. Military service is organised throughout the Federa- tion on the Prussian model, and made compulsory at 17. Bismarck is made Chancellor. 2048. Austria. The forms of Parliamentary Government are adopted. The Upper House is composed of the royal house, bishops, hereditary and life peers ; the Lower House is chosen by four classes, landowners, rural communes, cities, chambers of commerce. 2049. Hungary. On the advice of Beust, and with the aid of Deak, responsible government is granted to Hungary. An ' Ausgleich' arranges the quota of the nation^u debt, the tariff, etc. for 10 years. The Emperor is crowned King of Hungary. The common affairs of Austria and Hungary are settled by the Delegations, chosen by the two Houses, re-elected annually and meeting alternately in Pesth and Vienna. Foreign and military affairs and finance are controlled by joint mini- sters. 2050. Itsdy. Battazzi secretly encourages Garibaldi to attack Rome. Napoleon therefore sends a new garrison, which, with the Papal army, routs Garibaldi at Montana (Nov.). 1867] CULTURE 415 S!^6^. Anthropology. Remains discovered in America are thought by some to prove the existence of man in Tertiary times. S^63. Social. The Oothenburg system (State control of the sale of spirits) is introduced in Sweden. A Wholesale Society is founded at Manchester for wholesale buying and distribution to cooperative stores. Luzzatti establishes People's Banks in Milan, whence they spread throughout Italy. 3264, Deaths. Weisse, Whewell. Si^, Eng. Ch. The firot pan- Anglican Synod meets, under ngoy the presidency of Archbishop Tait. A letter is sent to the '- Greet: Church, and Bishop Golenso's case is discussed. Mackonochie, Incumbent of St Albans', Holbom, is prosecuted for ritualism. Bishop Forbes of Brechin explains the 39 Articles in a Catholic sense. 5266. Italian Ch. The Pope celebrates the 18th centenary of the death of SS. ^ Peter and Paul in presence of 500 Bishops, and announces his intention to hold an Oecumenical Council. An agitation for the proclamation of infallibility is organised by the Jesuits. 5267. Church Hist. Emanuel Deijtsch^ Essay on the Talmud. 5268. American Ch. Laurence Oliphant joins the communistic society established by Thomas Lake Harris at Brockton. 5269. French Lit. Sarcey becomes dramatic critic of the Temps. 5270. American Lit. Whittier's Maud Miiller. 5271. Australian Lit. Gordon's Sea Spray and Smoke Drift. S^2, Science. Siemens invents a process for producing steel. Maudsley's Physiology and Pathology of Mmd. 5273. Art Sterndale Bennett's Woman of Samaria. The Paris Exhibition introduces Japanese art to notice, and members of the Impressionist School are influenced by it. Strauss' * Blue Danube' waltz. 5274. Education. Mill's Rectorial Address at St Andrews insists on the importance of an education at once literary and scientific. 'Essays on a Liberal Education' and Pattison's Suggestions on Academic Organization urge the reform of English education. Professor James Stuart organises a movement for University Ex- tension. 3S^5. Philosophy. Drobisch's Moral Statistics and the Freedom of the Human Will continues the work of Quetelet. 3276. History. Freeman's History of the Norman Conquest. Schwegle?s History of Bome. Sickel edits the Acta Earolinorum. 3277. Politics. Bagehot's English Constitution. 3278. Economics. Marx* Capital declares value to arise from labour, which receives but a small share of the product, the surplus being seized by the owners of capital. 3279. Socisd. Baron v. Schorlemer-Alst founds the Westphalian 416 POLITICS [1867 2051. America. Napoleon recalls his troops from Mexico, Maximilian is taken and shot, and Juarez becomes President. The Dominion of Canada is joined by Nova Scotia and New Brans* wick. A Governor-General is appointed by the Grown, and a federal Parliament meets at Ottawa. The North- Western Territory, Manitoba, Prince Edward Island, and British Columbia auickly join. The Reconstruction Act is passed over tne President's veto. The States which had passed ordinances of secession are formed into military districts. A Convention is to frame a State Constitution, and to elect a legislature, which will ratify the Fourteenth Amendment. Alaska is bought by the United States frt)m Russia. 2052. En^and. Derby resigns, owing to ill-health, and is sue- naao ceeded by Disraeli. Gladstone carries a resolution for the dises- *- tablishment of the English Church in Ireland, obtains a Liberal majority at the General Election, and becomes Prime Minister. Compulsory church-rates are abolished. Election petitions are transferred to the judges. Cardwell, the War Minister, introduces short service. 2053. France. Rochefort attacks the Government in La Lanteme. Gambetta defends a paper prosecuted for collecting money for a victim of 1851, and is acclaimed the coming leader. Olhvier and Emile de Girardin attempt to make a Liberal Imperialism. 2054. Spain. Narvaez dies. Prim and Serrano revolt, and Isabella flees to France. The Cortes draw up a popular Constitution. 2055. Austria. Bohemia and Moravia demand the same rights as Hungary. 2056. RuBsia. Poland is incorporated with Russia administratively. 2057. Turkey. The ' Young Turkey ' party creates a new literature, but does not advocate the adoption of European ideas. 2058. America. Congress passes the Tenure of Oflice Act over Johnson's veto, making the consent of the Senate necessary to the dismissal of officials. Despite this, the President removes Stanton, Lincoln's War Secretary. Stanton appeals to the House, which im- peaches the President for disregarding the law ; but the impeachment is lost in the Senate. Grant is elected President. To defend the negroes against the Eu-Klux and other secret societies. Congress passes the Force Laws, and entrusts the execution of justice to the Federal Courts. 2059. Africa. An expedition under Napier rescues English prisoners of King Theodore of Abysinnia. Basutoland becomes British, and is annexed to Cape Colony, 1871. 2060. Asia. The Emir of Bokhara cedes to Russia the Khanate of Samarcand, and Bokhara itself becomes a dependent State. 1868] * CULTUBE 417 Fanners' Union, consiBting only of professing Christians and of land- owners, for mutual assistance and to encourage a^culture. The Union obtains considerable power and agitates for nigh protective duties. A Factory Inspection Act is passed. S280. Deaths. Bockh, Bopp, Cousin, Faraday, Ingres, Poncelet, Rothe. S281. Eng. Ch. Altar lights are condemned by the Privy nonQ Council. L^^^ Compulsory Church rates are abolished by Gladstone. 3282. Austrian Ch. Civil marriage is restored and the schools freed from clerical control. The Concordat itself is abolished 1870, in conse- quence of the Vatican decrees. 8283. Afilcaii Ch. Lavigerie founds the P^res Blancs for missionary and educational work. 3284. Eng. Lit. Browning's Ring and the Book. William Morris' Earthly Paradise. Quaritch issues his first General Catalogue of Books. 3285. Danish Lit. Brandes begins his work as a critic. 3286. Belgian Lit. De Coster's L^ende d'Uylenspiegel. 3287. Science. Haeckel's History of Creation. Darwin's Variation of Plants and Animals under Domestication. Angstrom constructs a map of the normal solar spectrum. The prominences seen round the sun at an eclipse are found to be gaseous, and Janssen and Lockyer deduce a spectroscopic method of observing them in daylight. 3288. Art. Wagner's The Mastersingers. Boito's Mefistofele. 3289. Philosophy. Ravaisson's Philosophic en France au 19^me Si^cle upholds idealism. Huxley's Physical Basis of Life. 3290. History. Quinet attacks the Terror as the enemy of the Revolu- tion and the Jacobins as absolutists. 3291. Geography. Schweinfurth explores the While Nile and Bahr el Ghazal, and discovers the sources of the Ubanghi. Nachtigal enters the Sahara Desert from Tripoli, explores Lake Chad and Wadai and returns through Egypt. 3292. Politics. Alexander Stephens' War between the States (of North America) defends the action of the South. 3293. Social. Bodelschwingh founds Bethel, near Bielefeld, for epileptics. Cardinal Mermillod founds Catholic Socialism in Switzerland, his work bein^ extended by Decurtins. Bakunm spreads his ideas in Italy and founds a number of branches of the International Association, which is also introduced into Spain. 8294. Deaths. Berryer, Brougham, Milman. G. 27 418 POLITICS [1869 2061. Ireland. The Anglican Church is disestablished, and is ng^g henceforth governed by a synod of clergy and laity ; the May- *■ nooth grant and the R^gium Donum to the Presbyterians are com- muted ; endowments since 1660 are reserved to the CJhurch ; the clergy and officials are secured their life interest ; the remaining funds are to be applied for the relief of unavoidable suffering. 2062. France. At a general election, Napoleon loses ^und ii^.tbe towns, above all in Pans and Lyons. The Uhamber receives the initia- tive of legislation equidly with the Emperor. The Ministers, though still responsible only to the Emperor, may be accused by the Senate. Bouher resigns. 2063. Germany. Prussia secures control of the South German fortresses. 2064. Spain. A Ck)nstituent Assembly declares Serrano R^ent The King of Portugal, Don Carlos, Alfonso, the youthful son of Isabella, Montpensier, and the Duke of Aosta are suggested for the throna 2065. America. The United States reject the settlement of the Alabama claims made by Clarendon and Beverdy Johnson, their ambas- sador. The Fifteenth Amendment is passed, forbidding the withholding of the franchise from race and colour by States or the Federal Oovem- ment Macdonald becomes Premier of Canada, and introduces Protection as part of his ' National Programme.' The Hudson's Bay Company sells its territories to the British Government, which incorporates them with Canada. The Company, however, retain its trading rights. 2066. Africa. The opening of the Suez Canal renders Etgypt of great importance to England. 2067. Asia. After civil war, the Mikado undertakes the government at Tokio, the Daimios surrender their privileges, and Japan throws off the feudal system. Hunter executes a statistical survey of the Indian Empire. 2068. Sn^laiid. Civil Service posts are thrown open to competi- nonn tion. »- The Commander-in-chief is placed under the control of the Secretary for War. 2069. Ireland. Landlords are obliged to compensate their tenants for im{)rovements and on ejection except for non-payment of rent Tenants desiring to buy land from their landlords, if willing to sell, may receive loans 01 two-thirds the amount from the Government. The Home Government Association is founded to work for an Irish Parliament to regulate all internal affairs. 2070. Belgimn. Neutrality is secured by a treaty between England, France and Prussia. 1870] CULTUBE 419 3^5. French Ch. P^re Hyacinthe leaves the Carmelites and r^g^g breaks with Rome, aud establishes an Old Catholic congregation ^ at (Geneva. 3^96. Qerman Ch. Biedermann's Christian Dogmatic, influenced by Hegel, excludes supernaturalism. 3^97. Spanish Ch. The IVotestant Churches hold their first Synod. 3^8, Church Hist. The Vatican Council meets, (Dec.). Manning advocates a definition of Infallibility ; but Newman, Dupanloup, Maret and Eetteler declare the Council inopportune. 'The Pope and the Council/ by Janus (written by the Munich professors) vigorously attacks the project. 3299. Eng. Lit. R. S. Hawker's Cornish Ballads. 3300. Norwegian Lit. Ibsen's Young Men's League, the first modem Norwegian comedy. 3301. Science. Mendeleeff, Lothar Meyer and Newlands develope the law that the properties of the elements are a periodic function of their atomic weights, which leads to the discovery of scandium, gallium, etc. 3302. Art. Carolus Duran's Dame au Oant, his first masterpiece. Alma Tadema's The Pyrrhic Dance, with the works of Leighton and Poynter, forms the £ng[lish Classic School. Defregger begins his series of pictures of Hofer's rising of 1809. Boehm s statue of the Queen, nis first important work. 3303. Philosophy. Hartmann's Philosophy of the Unconscious developes the ideas of Scho^nhauer. The Metaphysical Society is founded in London by James Enowles, and joined by Tennyson, Argyll, W. G. Ward, Manning, Huxley, Sidgwick, Martineau, and others. 3304. Philology. BenfeVs Histoiy of Oriental Philology. 3305. Law. Hinschius' Ecclesiastical Law in Germany. The Revue de Droit international is founded, edited by Rolin Jacquemyns. 3306. Politics. Matthew Arnold's Culture and Anarchy. 3307. Economics. Thornton's work on Labour explodes the wage- fund theory. A final defence is attempted by Caimes, 1874. 3308. History. Kuenen's Religion of Israel. J. K B. Mayor declares tixe De Situ Britanniae, attributed to Richard of Cirencester, to be a forgery of the 18th century. 3309. Social. Mill's Subiection of Women pleads for emancipation on social and political as well as on moral grounds. Women s suffrage is introduced in Wyoming. 3310. Deaths. Derby, Lamartine, Purkinje, Sainte-Beuve. 3311. Eng. Ch. Newman's Grammar of Assent maintains the n oyn existence of an * illative sense.' *■ The Revisers of the New Testament are chosen by Convocation and begin their work. The selection of Vance Smith, an Unitarian, and his admission to Communion is strongly condemned. 27—2 420 POLITICS [1870 2071. France. OUivier fonns a Liberal Ministry, and a new Constitu- tion is submitted to a plebiscite. Seven million approve and one and a half million disapprove. A fierce anti-dynastic outbreak occurs when Pierre Bonaparte, son of Lucien, shoots a man who brings him a challenge. Leopold of HohenzoUem-Sigmariugen, the candidate of General Prim, accepts the Spanish throne, with the approval of King William. Napoleon complains, and Leopold withdraws (July 12). Benedetti demands of the King at Ems an assurance that he will never allow Leopold to accept, but is refused (July 13). Bismarck garbles the Emperor's telegram, describing his intercourse with Benedetti, and Napoleon declares war (July 17), believing that Bavaria will join him, ana perhaps hoping for Austrian aid Bismarck publishes Napoleon s propositions for seizmg Belgium. The armies meet at Saarbriick (Aug. 2). The Crown Prince defeats Macmahon's army at Weissemburg ana Worth, and Frossard is repulsed at Spicheren. On the evacuation of Alsace, the main army concentrates round Metz. Bazaine is routed at GraTelotte (Aug. 18), and shuts himself up in Metz. Frederick Charles is left to watch Metz, and the Crown rrince marches on Paris. Macmahon marches from Chalons to relieve Metz. The French are routed at Sedan (Sept. 1), and the Emperor and his army capitulate (Sept. 2). The Empire falls, and the Empress flees to England, and a government of national defence is formed by Gambetta, Jules Favre, Ara^o, Trochu, Cr^mieux, Jules Simon, and Rochefort. The Senate is abolished, and the Corps L^islatif is dissolved. Thiers is sent to seek the mediation of the sovereigns of Europe. Paris is invested (Sept. 20). Strassburg capitulates (Sept 28), and Bazaine capitulates in Metz with 150,000 (Sept. 23). Gambetta escapes firom Paris in a balloon to Tours, and organises the army of the Loire, which advances to relieve Paris, but is broken up by Frederick Charles. The provisional government moves to Bordeaux (Dec.). 2072. Germany. The South German States enter the North German Confederation (Nov.), and the Beichstag offers the title of Emperor to the King of Prussia. William replies that the offer must come from the princes (Dec). 2073. Itsdy. On the outbreak of war, the French troops are recalled from Civita Vecchia, and Italian troops occupy Rome after a short bombardment (Sept 20). The Law of Guarantees establishes the inviolability of the Pope and his servants, concedes postal and tde- graphic intercourse, ana free diplomatic activity, and offers a civil list. The latter is declined, and the rest ignored. 2074. Russia. Gortschakoff, at Bismarck's secret instigation, repudiates the clauses of the Treaty of 1856, forbidding a Russian fleet and arsenal in the Black Sea. 2075. Spain. Isabella abdicates in favour of her son Alfonso, and the Duke of Aosta, son of Victor Emanuel, is chosen King. 2076. America. The Red River revolt of Indian h^-breeds in Mani- toba is suppressed by Wolseley. 2077. Africa. Diamonds are found on the western border of the Orange 1870] CULTUEK 421 Bishop Wordsworth discovers an Act of Henry VIIL, allowing Suffragans, who are speedily appointed. Voysev is prosecuted for publishing the Sling and the Stone, and is ejectea from tiie Anglican Church. He founds a Theist con- gregation. Prazer becomes Bishop of Manchester. Eeble College, Oxford, is founded. 5512. Russian Ch. Lord Badstock visits St Petersburg on an evan- gelical Mission. 5513. Churcli Hist Despite the opposition of Dupanloup, Darboy, Maret, Hefele, Eetteler, Strossmayer, Eenrick and other Oerman, French and American bishops, and of DoUinger and Montalembert, the Vatican Council declares rapal ex cathedra definitions of faith and morals infellible, by 533 to 2 (Julv 18). The decrees are accepted by the Bishops who nsA disapproved, them ; but Catholic professors ana scholars record a dissent at Nuremberg (Aug.). 5514. German Ch. Ritschl's Theory of Justification and Atonement discards natural theology and metaphysics and attempts to build on the work and words of Christ as believed by the early Christian com- munity. The moral element is put in the foremost place, and the problems of inspiration, sin and the pre-existence of the Son are not discussed 5516, Eng. Lit Rossetti's Poems. Disraeli's Lothair. 8316. German Lit. Anzengruber's Pastor of Kirchfeld. 5517, American Lit. Lowell's My Study Windows. 5518, Norwegian Lit. Jouas Lie begins his Sea Stories. S319, Science. Qalton's Hereditary Genius. Smokeless powder is invented. 3320. Art. Baudry paints the Paris Opera House. Fortuny's La Vicaria. Wagner's Essay on Beethoven estimates the significance of Beethoven and discusses the metaphysic of music from the standpoint of Schopenhauer. 3321. Eancation. Syed Ahmed Khan founds a Mohammedan College at Aligarh. Jowett becomes Master of Balliol College, Oxford. Forster's Bill creates Board Schools, where there are no Voluntary schools, for elementary education. The Birmingham League, led by Dixon and Chamberlain, oppose the religious settlem^t. In Com- mittee, Cowper-Temple's amendment is accepted, forbidding denomina- tional teaching in rate-aided schools. In Scotland, the religious teaching is setfled by local ballot. 3322. FhiloBophy. Crookes' Spiritualism and Science records his experiments with mediums. John Grote's examination of the Utilitarian Philosophy. 3323. History. Mommsen's Staatsrecht, a study of the government and officers of the Roman state. 3324. Geography. Nordenskiold explores the interior of Greenland. 422 POLITICS [1870 Free State. The land is taken by England, nominally on behalf of a Griqua chief, and Eimberley is founded. Some years later. President Brand obtains a solatium of £90,000. 2078. Sn^land. The Lords postpone a clause in an army regii- rigTi lation bill for the abolition of the purchase of commissions in the ■- army, and Gladstone advises the Queen to cancel the Royal warrant legalising purchase The Local Government Board is created. 2079. Prance. The army of the North, under Faidherbe, is defeated at Saint-Quentin, the second army of the Loire, under Chansy, is de- stroyed at Le Mans, and the army of the East, under Bourbaki, is driven into Switzerland. An armistice is arranged for three weeks, except at Belfort and in the Jura. Paris capitulates (Jan. 28). An Assembly meets at Bordeaux (Feb. 12) and elects Thiers as head of the executive. Thiers and Jules Favre arrange preliminaries (Feb. 26), which are confirmed by the Treaty of Frankfort (May). France cedes Alsace, except Belfort (which surrenders Feb. 18), and most of Lorraine, including Metz. The indemnity is fixed at 200 millions, to be paid in three years, the German army to be withdrawn as instalments are paid. Though the Republicans are in a minoritv in the Constitutional Assembly, a Republic is proclaimed, the Comte oe Chambord refusing to renounce the white flag. The Conmiune breaks out in Paris (March 18), led by Felix Pyat and Louise Michel, and is put down by the national troops under Macmahon (May), after the death of .^hbishop Darboy and other hostages and the destruction of the Tuileries and the Hdtel de Ville. Jules Guesde founds the Socialist movement, which is developed by Brousse, Allemane, and Blanqui. 2080. Germany. The King of Prussia is acknowledged German Emperor. A Federal Constitution is adopted. The Reichstag is elected for three years, and chosen by universal suffrage. The Bundesrath con- sists of delegates from the Governments (Prussia sending 17), each state voting solid. Changes in the Constitution, the army and taxation can be vetoed by 14 members. A Court of Appeal decides questions of imperial law, and an imperial court judges of political offences. Popular government is introduced everywhere except in Mecklenburg. 2081. Italy. The seat of Government is transferred to Rome. 2082. Austria. The Emperor appoints a Federalist Ministry under Hohenwart, who n^otiates the concession to Bohemia of full self- government, except in foreign affairs, war, and trade. German opposi- tion becomes so fierce that the Emperor withdraws his promises, and Hohenwart resigns. Beust, who is considered anti-Prussian, is dismissed. 2083. RuBsia. At a Conference held in London, at the suggestion of Bismarck, the action of Russia in reference to the Black Sea clauses is confirmed. 1871] CULTURE 428 S326, Social. Infanticide is forbidden in India. Women become eligible as members of School Boards. 8S26. Deaths. Clarendon, Dickens, Dumas, Farragut, Herzen, Lee, Mdrim^e, Montalembert, Pr^vost-Paradol, Villemain. 5527. Eng. Ch. Miall's motion for disestablishment obtains 96 riQin votes. L^®^ 5528, French Ch. Macall begins mission work in Paris. 5529, German Ch. The Archbishop of Munich orders DoUin^er to accept the Decrees. He refuses 'as a Christian, a theologian, a historian, and a citizen,' and is excommunicated. The first Congress of Old Catholics is held at Munich. 500 dele^tes attend, and ochulte presides, supported by Dollinger, Beinkens, Fnedrich, Huber, Maasseu. The Catholic members of the Prussian Landtag petition the Emperor to restore the temporal power of the Pope. The ^undesrath and the Beichstag pass the Ranzel-paragraph, restraining priests from abusing their pastoral functions for political purposes. To oppose this legisla- tion, W indhorst founds the Centre Party. Political and civil equality is granted to the Jews. 5530. Italian Ch. The Law of Guarantees declares the Pope's person inviolable, accords the honours of a sovereign prince, allows the posses- sion of the Vatican and other palaces, and grants an annuity, which he rejects. 8331. French Lit. Zola's Rougon-Macquart series. 3332. Qerman Lit. Ros^ger's Stories from the Steiermark. 3333. Science. Darwin's Descent of Man. The Mont Cenis tunnel is opened. 3334^ Art. The first Impressionist exhibition in France is held, con- taining works of Manet, Monet, Pissaro, Degas, Renoir. 3335. Philology. B. Delbruck's Researches in Syntax. 3336. Geography. Livingstone discovers tiie Upper Congo. 3337. Education. Miss Clough opens a house at Cambridge for girls, which later becomes Newnham College. The religious test is abolished in English Universities. 3338. Economics. Jevons' Theory of Political Economy applies mathematical methods, and introduces the conception of 'Final Utility.' 8339. Politics. Ruskin's Fors Clavigera. 8340. History. Maine's fiekrly Institutions investigates early Irish society. 8341. SociaL Trade Unions are legalised. Moufang, a pupil of Eetteler, in standing for the Reichstag, issues an address which becomes the programme of the party of Catholic Socialists. Adolph Wagner's The Social Question founds Protestant Socialism in Germany, and urges the State to mitigate the pressure on the workers. 424 POLITICS [1871 2084. America. By the Treaty of Washington, England and the United States agree to submit the Alabama claim to arbitration. The corrupt governors of New York, known as the Tweed Ring, are exposed and nJl ; but Tammany rapidly regains its influence. The kst of the seceding States re-enter the union^ and are restored to their full rights. Silver is demonetised. 2085. AMca. HoUand cedes her settlements on the Gold Coast to E^land. 2086. Engjand. The Ballot is introduced. ^ r^gy2 A Court of Arbitration, sitting at Geneva, awards the United *- States three miUions damages for the Alabama ; Cockbum, the British representative, dissents, England having renounced her claim to com- pensation for the Fenian attack on Canada. The money, however, is paid. A Commercial Treaty with France modifies that of 1860, of which Thiers, a strict Protectionist, disapproves. A motion to extend county tranchise is lost, but is frequently re- introduced by Sir George Trevelyan. Sir Charles Dilke declares Imnself a republican, and Fawcett claims the right to discuss the form of government 2087. France. The Orleans prmces accept compensation for the con- fiscation of their estates. This step is widely regarded as a renunciation of their claims. 2088. Qermany. Bismarck remodels the local government of Prussia, destroying the absolute control of local affairs by the nobility. The Emperors of Russia and Austria visit Berlin, and a Dreikaiser- biindniss is tacitly established with a view to maintain the 8tlot with the Empress Augusta to replace Bismarck by Count Amim. The Lassalleans and Marxians unite at the Congress of Gotha. 2 101. Denmark. Iceland obtains firom Denmark self-government and a legislature, after a long contest, largely by the influence of Sigurdsson. 2102. Spain. The Cortes are dissolved by the army, Castelar resigns, Serrano assumes the Presidencv, but is overthrown by Martinez Campos, by whom Alfonso, son of Isabella, is proclaimed King (Dec.). 2103. Switzerland. The Constitution is revised and becomes more centralised. The Federal Council (the Executive) is elected by the Federal Assembly. The President, who is no more than the Chairman, is elected for one year. The Federal Government controls the army, ecclesiastical matters, education, commercial laws, social reform. A Referendum is allowed, if demanded by 30,000 voters or by eight cantons. The Federal T^bunal, the only Federal Court, receives greater power. 2104. Rnssia. Conscription is made compulsory on reaching the age of 21. 2105. Australasia. The Fiji Islands are surrendered by the chiefe to England. 2106. AMca. The war with Ashanti, in defence of the Gold Coast Settlements, ends with the capture of Coomassie. Darfur is conquered by Egypt. 2107. Asia. Annam accepts French protection, and submits its foreign policy to France, thus breaking off its shadowy vassalage to China. 2108. England. Gladstone retires, and Hartington leads the nofve Liberal partv. [1875 Disraeli buys four millions worth of shares in the Suez Canal from the Khedive. Strangers may only be excluded from the debates by a vote of a majority of the House. 2109. France. A new Constitution is constructed, chiefly by the influence of Gambetta, consisting of a President chosen for 7 years by both Houses, a Chamber of Deputies chosen for 4 years by uni- versal suffraffe by Scrutin d'Arrondissement, and a Senate to be elected for 9 years by an electoral body in each department, one-third being renewed every three years, and 75 chosen by the Senate for life. Owing to measures for the reorganisation of the army, a war scare arises in Germany, and an article appears in the Berlin ' Post,' entitled War in Sight. !&)gland and Russia intervene, and the crisis terminates. 21 10. Hungary. The Deak party breaks up, and the Left accepts the compact of 1867. Tisza, its leader, becomes Premier, with the aid of Deak's followers, and remains in power till 1890. 2111. Greece. The people compel the King to dismiss his Ministry, which has acted unconstitutionally. 1876] CULTURE 429 decrees of 1870 inconsistent with civil allegiance. Newman's Letter to the Duke of Norfolk rebuts the charge. SS73, Scotch Ch. Lay patronage is given to male communicants. 8374, German Ch. The Old Gatnolics permit the use of the vernacular, recognize the marriage of priests, consent to drop the Filioque, and abohsh compulsory confession. Civil marriage is made compulsory in Prussia, and ecclesiastics who have disobeyed the May Laws may be banished. At the Qeneral Elec- tion 100 members are returned to the Centre. 3376. Austrian Ch. The May Laws are substituted for the Concordat of 1855. 8376, Italian Oh. Curci urges the recognition of the new kingdom. 3377. Science. Observations of the Transit of Venus fail to establish the distance of the Earth from the Sun. Allport's Contributions to the Petrography of England. 3378. Art. Strauss' Fliedermaus. 3379. FhiloBophy. T. H. Green's Introduction to Hume criticises Empiricism. Mill's Three Essays on Religion admit an intelligent mind with limited power. Sidgwick's Methods of Ethics, a Utilitarian treatise. Wundt's Physiological Psychology presents psychology as an experi- mental science. 8380. History. Green's Short History of England. Stubbs' Gonstitutiontd History of England. Reeve edits Greville's Memoirs. 3881, Politics. Auberon Herbert begins to teach Voluntaryism. 3382. Education. Bonghi becomes Italian Minister of Education. 3883. Philology. Corssen declares Etruscan an Italic dialect. 8384. Anthropology. Pitt-Rivers exhibits his collections illustrative of savage life. 3386. Deaths. Guizot, Michelet, Strauss, Sumner, Tischendorf. 3386. Eng. Ch. Dale's Treatise on the Atonement. \\%1^ 3387. German Ch. The Pope declares recent anti-Catholic >- legislation invalid. The Government refuses payment to clergy who will not promise to obey the laws, and 8 of the 12 Prussian bishoprics and 1,400 curacies become vacant. 3388. Church Hist. The Worship of the Sacred Heart is instituted. Laveleye's L'Avenir des Peuples Catholiques attacks the political and intellectual influence of Catholicism. 3389. Eng. Lit. The 9th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica is edited by Baynes and Robertson Smith. 3390. French Lit. R^jane makes her d^but. 3391. German Lit. Julius Wolff's Ratcatcher of Hamelin. 3392. Science. Darwin's Insectivorous Plants. Galton introduces the conception of the stirp. 3893. Art. Bizet's Carmen. The Hermes of Praxiteles is found at Olympia. 430 POLITICS [1876 2112. Turkey. A revolt breaks out in Bosnia and Herz^ovina. England refuses to join in a memoraDdum to the Porte ; but the Austrian minister, Andrassy, draws up a note, enumerating the con- cessions that the Sultan ought to make (Dec.). 2113. Australasia. Provincial Governments in New Zealand are abolished, and the Government centralised. 2114. AMca. Disraeli's Circular on fugitive slaves orders English ships in the neighbourhood to refuse an asylum to slaves and to surrender them at a port, but is withdrawn in consequence of the indignation it excites. Lord Carnarvon sends Froude to South Africa to recommend federa- tion. President Macmahon pronounces on the English and Portuguese claims in Delagoa Bay in favour of the latter. De Brazza makes his first expedition in the Congo country, and per- suades many tribes to accept French direction. Bx)ustan becomes French Consul-General at Tunis. 2115. Asia. The Gaikwar of Baroda is deposed for attempting to poison the British Resident, and a nominated child of the fiooily succeeds. Russia annexes the Khanate of E[hokand. 2116. En^and. The Appellate Jurisdiction Act restores the nona jurisdiction of the House of Lords and the Judicial Committee ^ of the Privy CounciL The Court of Appeal becomes intermediate. The House of Lords as a Court of Appeal consists of the Law Lords, the ChanceUor, four Lords of Ai)peal in Ordinary. 2117. Italy. An equilibrium in the Budget is obtained. Minghetti's Ministry, however, is defeated, and the Right loses power. Depretis succeeds with an immense majority, and the group system developes. The constant ministerial changes gravely diminish the prestige of Parliamentary institutions. 2118. Spain. The Carlist war is ended, and a new Constitution is introduced. 2119. Turkey. The Andrassy note is accepted by the Sultan and the Powers ; but the insurgents demand guarantees, and the Berlin Memo- randum threatens coercion unless the concessions are made within two months. Beaconsfield refuses to approve. Servia and Montenegro declare war on the Sultan. At the same moment, a revolt in Bulgaria is suppressed with inhuman cruelties. Intense indignation is excited in England by the details in the report of Baring and tne pamphlet of Gladstone. An army of Russian volunteers, under Tchernaieflf, joins the Servians, who are defeated ; but the Montenegrins win several victories. Abdul-Hamid becomes Sultan, 1876] CULTURE 431 SS94, Philosophy. Theosophical propaganda is begun by Gol. Olcott, Mme Blavatsky, and Sinnett. 3395. History. Taine's Origines de la France Contemporaine hotly attacks the Jacobin tradition. Fustel de GoulanRes' Institutions politiques de Tancienne France. The Dictionary of German fiiography is commenced. 3396. Geography. Stanley circumnaviffates Victoria Nyanza and Tan- ganyika, and traces the Congo to the Auantic. Nares reaches 83*" 20' 26", a Umit surpassed by a few miles by the Greeh^ expedition of 1882-4. Nordenskiold makes the North-East nassage. 3397. AgrictQtore. The A^cultural Holdings Act arranges for com- pensation for unexhausted improvements. 3398. Social. FUmsoll carries the Merchants' Shipping fiill. The Friendly Societies are brought under the law. The Uuiyersal Postal Union is instituted. 3399. Deaths. Hans Andersen, Corot, Ewald, Finlay, Eaulbach, Eingsley, Lyell^ Millet, Pertz, Quinet, ThirlwalL 3400. Eng. Ch. The Order of Corporate Union is instituted. hmq 3401. American Ch. Savage, a Unitarian Minister in Boston, ^ attempts to blend evolution with a theistic element. Mrs Eddy founds the Christian Scientists. Adler founds a Societ]^ for Ethical Culture in New York. 3402. Chnrch Hist. Tluele's History of Religion to the Spread of the Universal Religions presents the first connected and comparative account of early religious ideas. 3403. German Lit. Dahn's novel, A Struggle round Rome. 3404- Danish Lit. Jacobsen's Fru Marie Grubbe introduces realism. 34O6. Portuguese Lit. Jo&o de Deus' Flores de Campo. 3406. Science. Bell invents a telephone. Its defects as a transmitter are remedied by Edison and Hughes, 1877-8. Lembroso's The Criminal founds comparative criminology. 3407. Art. Leighton's Daphnephoria. Bou^ereau's La Vierge Consolatrice. Puvis de Chavannes, Sonnat and Laurens fresco the Pantheon. Wagner's Ring of the Nibelungs is performed at Bayreuth. Edouard and Jean de Reszke make their d^but. Bichter begins to conduct orchestral concerts in England. 3408. Philosophy. Avenarius' Philosophy as the Thought of the "World. Mainlander and Hellenbach advocate celibacy and suicide. 3409. Fliilology. Strack edits the Prophetarum posteriorum Codex Babylonicus PetropoUtanus. S4IO. Education. A Commission appointed to revise the Statutes of the colleges of Oxford University reduces clerical fellowships, and abolishes clerical headships except in Christ Church and Pembroke. Its work is bitterly attacked by Burgon. 432 POLITICS [1876 and a Turkish anny enters Servia, but is brought to a halt by the Russian ultimatum. A truce of six months is arranged, and ambassadors of the Powers meet at Constantinople. 2120. America. After a vigorous struggle for the Presidency, Hayes defeats Tilden, a Democrat Hayes removes the soldiers who uphold federal authority in the South ana leaves the whites to regain power. The publication of the Mulligan Letters, written by Blame, 1869, when Speaker, destroys a great part of his prestige and power. Diaz defeats Tejada, the President, and becomes supreme in Mexico. 2121. AMca. The Khedive Ismail being 100 millions in debt, Goschen is sent to Egypt, and the Dual Control of France and England is esta- blished. 2122. Asia. England takes Socotra. 2123. En^and. Obstruction is practised by the Irish members, riooo Biggar and Parnell, during the debate on South Africa. L **' ' 2124. France. Macmahon dismisses Jules Simon (May 16), and appoints De Broglie President of the Council. 363 memliers protest, the Chamber is dissolved, a large republican majority is returned, and De Broglie resigns. 2125. Russia. Skobeleff declares that an invasion of India with 50,000 men would be free from all risk. 2126. Turkey. The conference at Constantinople fails, the Sultan refusing to allow the powers a voice in the election of provincial fovemors. Montenegro remains in arms. Russian troops cross the Danube and clear and hold the Shipka Pass (July 17). Charles of Roumania signs a convention with Russia, promising active co-operation. The Sultan deposes him, and Roumania proclaims her independence, and joins the Russians before Plevna. Osman Pasha repulses an attack on rlevna (Sept.), which, however, capitulates (Dec). In Asia Minor, Ears is stormed (Nov.). 2127. Africa. Bartle Frere is made High Commissioner of South Africa, and instructed to work of federation. Lord Carnarvon's Permissive Bill is, however, rejected by all the governments of South Africa. The South African Republic is annexed by Sir Theophilus Shep- stone, during a recess of the Volksraad, on the ground that it is bankrupt and in danger from Basutos and Zulus. Three-fourths of the burghers send a deputation to England to protest. 2128. Asia. A great famine occurs in India. The Queen is proclaimed Empress of India at Delhi. Yakub Beg's rebellion is suppressed. A rebellion breaks out in Satsuma, but is suppressed, after heavy fighting, by the Japanese government. 1877] CULTURE 433 5411. Economics. Cliffe Leslie attacks the ideas of Ricardo. 5412, Geography. Reclus' G^ographie Universelle. S4IS, Anthropology. Spencer's rrinciples of Sociology explain the "ghost-theory" of religion, asserting that a second or inyisible self, inferred from shadows, Seep, and dreams, has led to ancestor-worship. 3414. Social. Brockway founds Elmira Reformatory. 3415, Deaths. AntoneUi, Deak, Lassen, Harriet Martineau, Paludan- Miiller, George Sand. 3416. Eng. Ch. The Methodist Conference admits the laity. rift?? Farrar's Eternal Hope is answered by Pusey's What is of *• Faith concerning Everlasting Punishment? 3417. Trench, Ch. A Protestant Institute is established in Paris. 3418. Eng. Lit. James Enowles edits the Nineteenth Century, a monthly magazine. Mallock's New Republic. S419. Italian Lit. Carducci's Odi Barbare imitate classical metres and introduce exotic forms. 3420. American Lit. Henry James* The American. 3421. Russian Lit. Tolstoi's Anna Karenina. 3422. Norwegian Lit. Ibsen's Pillars of Society. 3423. Science. Pictet and Caillet liquefy the 'permanent gases' by pressure and low temperature. Hall discovers the satellites of Mars. Schiaparelli discovers ' canals ' in Mars. Miss Ormerod publishes her first annual report on injurious farm insects. Van't Hoff suR^Qsts a tri-dimensional theory of atomic space-relations. Lord Bayleigos Treatise on Sound. 3424* Art. Grant Allen's Physiological Aesthetics denies the existence of anything intrinsic in objects which calls forth aesthetic pleasure. The beautiftil is that which affords the maximum of stimulation and the minimum of fatigue or waste. Saint-Saens' Samson and Dalila. Front's Instrumentation. 34^. Education. Elementary Education is made compulsory in Italy between the ages of six and nine. 3426. History. Picker's Contributions to the Study of Documents. 3427. Geography. Richthofen's China. Stanley traces the Con^o to its mouth. 3428, Social. Todt's Socialism and Christian Society aids the founda- tion of a Protestant Socialist movement in Germany, of which Stocker, a Court Chaplain, becomes the leader. Archbishop Pecci issues liberal Pastorals on the Social Question. 3429, Deaths. Courbet, Cournot, Ketteler, Lanfrey, Leverrier, Palacky., Ritschl, Thiers, Tholuck. 28; 434 POLITICS [1878 2129. Qermany. Attempts are made to assassinate the Emperor, rng^o and severe laws against tne Socialists are passed. ^ 2130. Italy. The Irredentist agitation (to obtain Trieste and other districts where Italian is spoken) grows. 2131. Turkey. Believing that the Russians are marching to Constantly nople, Disraeli sends the English fleet through the Dardanelles (Feb.). Carnarvon and Derby resign, and Salisbury becomes Foreign Secretary. Credits of six millions are obtained, the Reserves are c;(Uled out, and Indian troops summoned to Malta. .Russia and Turkey sign the Treaty of San Stefano (March). Rou- mania, Servia, and Montenegro are to be independent and to receive territory ; an autonomous but tributary Bulgaria reaches from the Black Sea to the Aegean ; Batum, Erzerum and Kars pass to Russia, which receives the strip of Bessarabia lost 1856, and part of Armenia. England demands an European Congress. Russia agrees to the dis- cussion only of the Articles concerning the general interests of Europe. The deadlock is removed by Schouvaioif, who prepares a list of ques- tions to be discussed. Beaconsfield and Salisbury represent England at the Berlin Congress, Waddington France, Schouvaloff and Gortchakoff Russia, Andrassy Austria. By the Treaty of Berlin, Bulgaria north of the Balkans is to become an autonomous state, paying tribute to the Sultan ; the south is to become Eastern Roumelia, to have administra- tive autonomy, and to be ruled by a Christian prince, nominated by the Sultan and approved by the Powers. Russia regains the strip of Bess- arabia, and obtains Ears and Batum. The Protectorate over Bosnia and Herzegovina is given to Austria; the Danube is neutralised, and the fortresses on its banks are to be razed. Russia resigns Erzerum. Roumania is recognised as a sovereign state, and Montenegro and Servia are declared independent. The Sultan undertakes to grant reforms, under the superintendence of the Powers, and complete political equality. By the Convention of Cyprus, made by England and Turkey shortly before the Congress, England guarantees the remaining Turkish possessions in Asia Minor, the Sultan handing over Cyprus and promising reforms. 2132. Greece. The Powers recommend the Sultan to grant Thessaly and part of Epirus to Greece. 2133. Austria. Austria reduces Bosnia and Herzegovina. 2134. Russia, (general Trepoff is murdered by Vera Sassoulitch. 2135. America. The purcnase of not less than two millions silver bullion monthly for coinage into silver dollars at 16 to 1 is adopted. 2136. Australasia. The United States, Germany and England make commercial treaties with the King of Samoa. 2137. Africa. The report on the Zulu boundary (][uestion submitted to arbitration, 1877, is issued. The ultimate award is left to Bartle Frere, who adds a number of demands. English sovereignty is proclaimed over Walfisch Bay. 2138. Asia. The Ameer receives a party of Russian officers, but refuses to receive an English mission. An ultimatum is disregarded, and Roberts is ordered to invade Afghanistan. 1878] CULTURE 436 3430, Eng. Oh. The Hibbert Lectures on Gomparatiye Religion rj^o^g are opened by Max Miiller. Subsequent courses are delivered *- by Kenan, Rhys Davids, Benouf, D'AlvieUa, Euenen, Rhys, Hatch, Pfleiderer. 3451. Scotch Ch. Leo XIIL restores the Catholic hierarchy, a measure recommended by Wiseman and promised hy Pius IX. Rainy advocates Disestablishment in his Church and State. Robertson Smith is tried for heresy. After his condemnation, he delivers popular lectures on the Old Testament in the Jewish Church, and on tne Prophets. 3452, Spanish Ch. The Spanish Protestants petition the Anglican Church for a Bishop. 3433. American Cn. Colonel IngersoU begins to speak and write against Christian dogma. 3434. Church Hist. Leo XIIL succeeds Pius, and appoints liberal Ministers ; but RampoUa, an ultramontane, is soon forced on him by the Jesuits. 343s, Eng. Lit. Ellen Teny joins Irving's company. 3436. French Lit. SuUy-Prudhomme's La Justice. 3437. German Lit. Fontanels Before the Storm, a story of the War of Liberation. 3438. Science. Marsh discovers gigantic fossil forms in America. Lockyer explains his theory of the compound nature of the chemical elements. The Eddystone Lighthouse, built 1759, is taken down and replaced by a new structure. Electric lighting is introduced. Lapworth's Life Zones in the lower palaeozoic rocks of Scotland. Van't Hoff applies the Avogadrian rule to solutions. David Hughes discovers the microphone, which is used as a trans- mitter to the telephone. 3439. Art. Millais' Yeoman of the Guard. 3440. Philosophy. Wundt institutes a Laboratory at Leipzig for psychophysical research. Hartmann's Phenomenology of the Ethical Consciousness traces the steps in the development of the moral idea. 344^' History. Leck/s History of England in the 18th century. Wellhausen's History of Israel blends the currents starting from Vatke, Ewald and Reuss. Oncken edits an Universal History, to which Stade, Dahn, Hertzberg, Philippson, Droysen, Bruckner, Stem and others contribute. 344^, Social.^ The Pope issues an encyclical against Socialism, changing his attitude in part owing to attempts on the Emperor William and King Humbert. 344^. Deaths. Claude Bernard, Bryant, Dupanloup, Fazy, Gutzkow, Gilbert Scott, Secchi, E. H. Weber. 28—2 436 POLITICS [1879 2139. England. Gladstone attacks Beaconsfield in his Mid- rxg^g lothian Campaign. >- 2140. Ireland. Davitt forms the Land League. 2141. France. The Prince Imperial is killed in South Africa. Gr^vy succeeds Macmahon, who resigns. 2142. Qermany. Russia's resentment being aroused by the part played by Germany in the Treaty of 1878, Bismarck concludes a deiensiye alliance with Austria. Bismarck imposes protectiye duties. The Supreme Court is fixed at Leipzig. Alsace-Lorraine is declared a Reichsknd, or Territory, a Statthalter is appointed, and the assembly is allowed to originate legislation. 2143. Austria. Taafe forms a composite Cabinet 2144. America. The resumption of payment in gold is made. Chile quarrels with Peru and Bohyia oyer nitrate deposits, cripples the Peruyian nayy, and captures Peru's chief ports. Lessees begins to plan the Panama Canal. 2145. Africa. Ismail is deposed by the Sultan, and Tewfik succeeds. Cetewayo neglects Bartle Frere's ultimatum, and Lord Chelmsford enters Zululand A diyision is almost annihilated at Isandlhwana, but the Zulus are checked by the defence of Rorke's Drifts and crushed at Ulundi. The French extend their power in Senegambia, on the Upper Niger, and on the Guinea coast. Stanley is sent out by Belgium to found the Congo Free State. 2146. Aostreklasia. England acquires the right of most feiyoured nation in Tonga. 2147. Asia. The Ameer of Afghanistan dies, and the Treaty of Granda- mak is signed with Yakub Khan, the new Ameer. The English enyoy Caya^an, howeyer, is murdered, Afghanistan is again inyaded, and CabuT captured. Warburton is appointed Political Officer in the Khyber. By winning the confidence of the Afridis, he reduces the Pass to perfect order. 2148. En^emd. The Liberals win the General Election. riooQ Beaconsfield resigns, Hartington fails to form a Ministry, and *- Gladstone becomes Premier. Bradlaugh claims to make an affirmation, and, failing that, to take the oath. Biandolph Churchill, Gorst, and Drummond Wolff form the so-called 'Fourth Party,' acting inde- pendently of Stafford Northcote. 2149. Ireland. Forster's Compensation for Disturbance clause in a relief Bill is rejected by the Lords. The Land League organises an agitation against eyiction and rent. Parnell becomes Sessional Chairman of the Home Rule party. 2150. Prance. Rochefort and the exiles are allowed to return. 1880] CULTURE 437 8444* French Oh. Jules Ferry's education bill forbids members n o^g of unauthorised communities to teach. The clause is resisted in *- the Senate by Jules Simon and postponed. Ribet's La lifystique Divine. S44^. German Cfh. Domer's System of Christian Doctrine, a Lutheran exposition. Treitschke calls attention to the growth of Jewish influence, and an anti-semitic crusade is initiated by Stocker ; but the movement is dis- couraged by the Court. S44^' American Ch. Phillips Brooks delivers the Bohlen Lectures on the Influence of Jesus. 344'^> Church Hist. Max Miiller edits a translation of the Sacred Books of the East, beginning with the Upanishads. The Pope recommends Catholic schools to study Aquinas. S4i8. Eng. Lit. Edwin Arnold's Light of Asia. 3449. French Lit. Zola's L'Assommoir. 84^0. Swedish Lit. Strindberg's Ked Room introduces naturalism. S4S1. Norwegian Lit. Ibsen's Doll's House. 3452. Science. Fouqu^ and Levy's Microscopical Study of the Igneous Rocks of France. Crookes infers an ultra-gaseous state of matter from studying the passage of the electric discharge through highly rarefied gases. Hansen studies fermentation. 34^3. Art. Bastien-Lepage's Joan of Arc. Grove's Dictionary of Music. 3454. Philology. Whitney's Sanskrit Grammar. 3455, Philosophy. Spencer's Data of Ethics traces the evolution of conduct, and sets up the test of social efficiency. Balfour's Defence of Philosophic Doubt asserts the uncertainty of knowledge. Huxley depicts Hume as the embodiment of the scientific spirit. 34^6. History. Janssen's History of the German People during the Refonnation, a powerful Ultramontane presentation. Treitschke's History of Germany in the 19th century. 3457. Economics. Gifien's Essays in Finance. 3458. Social. Canon Blackley proposes a scheme of Old Age Pensions. 3459. Deaths. Clifibrd, Espartero, Garrison, Lord Lawrence, Delane, Roon. 3460. Eng. Ch. The Burials Bill allows Christian Dissenters to n g^ hold services in the churchyiuxl of the parish. ^ Cheyne edits the Book of IsaiaL 3461. French Ch. Gr^yy overrides the Senate's opposition to Ferry's bill The Jesuits are dissolved, militarv chaplains are abolished, and candidates for the ministry are compeUed to serve in the army for a year. S462. Belgian Ch. In consequence of the School Law of 1879, diplo- matic relations with the Papacy are broken off. 3463. Qennan Ch. Finding the National Liberals growing restive, 438 POLITICS [1880 2151. Qermany. Most and Hasselmann, Anarchists, are expelled from the Social Democratic party. 2152. Russia. France alienates Russia by refusing the extradition of Hartmann, who had been concerned in the Moscow attempt on the Tsar's life. Loris Melikoff is given dictatorial power to deal with Nihilists, but makes concessions. 2153. Montenegro. Dulcigno is transferred to Montenegro by pressure from the Powers, at the instance of Gladstone. 2154. Asia. Abdurrahman becomes Ameer of Afghanistan. An English force is defeated at Mai wand by Ayub Khan, son of Shere All (Dec.), and Roberts marches rapidly to Gandahar. 2155. Africa. A petition for the reversal of the annexation of the Transvaal is refused bv Gladstone's Government, on the ground that manv English have settled there. The biirffhers therefore declare inde> pendence under Eruger, Pretorius and Joubert (Dec), and the British garrisons are surrounded. 2156. Australasia. A conference at Melbourne discusses federation. France annexes the Tahiti Isles. 2157. Ireland. A Land Bill enables a tenant to sell his interest, riogi the purchaser acquiring all the seller's rights, and to apply to ^ a land court to nx a rent for 15 years. The landlord may object to a new tenant, and has rights of pre-emption and of resumption. The Duke of Argyll disapproves of the BiU, and leaves the ministry. Parnell is arrested (Oct.). The No Rent Manifesto is published, and the Land League is suppressed as an illegal and criminal association. 2158. France. Ferry resigns on an at^k on his Tunis policy, and Gambetta forms a ministry from which all distinguished men, except Paul Bert, hold aloof. 2159. Italy. An Electoral Reform Bill enfranchises men of 21, of property or education, and adopts Scrutin de Liste. Minority repre- sentation is granted to districts returning five members. 2160. Russia. The Tsar is murdered, having that day signed an Ukase calling a consultative Assembly of Notables. Alexander III. begins to tamper with the privileges of Finland and the Baltic Provinces. 2161. Greece. The Powers compel Turkey to cede to Greece the greater part of Thessaly and the command of the Gulf of Arta. 2162. Bulgaria. Alexander suspends the constitution and makes a Russian general his premier. 2163. America. President Garfield is murdered. 2164. AfWca. Negotiations are opened with the Boers ; but CoUey is defeated at Laing's Nek (Jan.), and Majuba Hill (Feb.), where he is killed. Sir Evelyn Wood declares that he has the Transvaal at his 1881] CULTURE 439 Bismarck conciliates the Centre by making the application of the May Laws discretionary. S464, Eng. Lit. Shorthouse's John Inglesant Thompson's CSty of Dreadful Night. Sj^6S, French Lit. Zola's Le Koman Experimental explains * nataralism/ 5466. Amexican Lit. Mark Twain's A Tramp Abroad. 5467, Literature. Burton's translation of Camoens. 3468. Science. Francis Balfour's Gomparatiye Embryology. S469. Art Verdi's Aida. Cologne Cathedral is finished. Pearson designs Truro Cathedral, which is opened, 1887. Hans Thoma's portrait of himself (Dresden). S4'^0. Archaeology. The Gigantomachia is discovered at Pergamus. 8471. Philosophy. John Caird's Philosophy of Religion. S472, Education. High Schools are instituted for girls in England. 3473. History. Hodgkin's Italy and her Invaders. 3474. Economics. Bagehot points out that Ricardo's economics rest on assumptions only true withm very narrow limits. 3475. Law. Holland's Jurisprudence.^ 3476. Social. Bertillon measures criminaLs for purposes of detection. An Employers' Liability Bill compensates for accidents due to the negligence of employer or foreman. The Ground Game Act secures farmers' crops against hares and rabbits. Fawcett introduces Parcels' Post, and improves Savings-banks. 3477. Deaths. Geoiige Eliot, Flaubert, Stratford de BedclifFe, Ricasoli. 3478. Eng. Ch. The Revised Version of the New Testament r^^^^ appears. •■ Westcott and Hort edit the Greek Testament. 3479. French Ch. Ferry expels the unauthorised Congregations. 3480. Italian Ch. Campello becomes a Protestant. Anti-papal manifestations occur on the occasion of the removal of the remams of Pius IX. 3481. Russian Ch. PobyedonostseflF becomes the Procurator of the Holy Synod and furiously persecutes the Jews. 348^. French Lit. Perfect freedom is granted to the press. Pailleron's Le Monde oti Ton s'ennuie. Sarah Bernhardt leaves the Commie Frangaise. 3483, Qerman Lit. Wildenbruch's Carolingians revives the historical drama. 3484. Norviregian Lit. Ibsen's Ghosts. 3485, Romnanian Lit. Carmen Sylva's (The Queen of Roumania) Roumanian Poems. 3486. Science. Pasteur attenuates anthrax virus by vaccine. Langley invents the Bolometer. Geoi^e Darwin investigates tidal friction. 3437, Art. Liebermann's Orphanage in Amsterdam. Munckaczy's Christ before Pilate. Perrot and Chipiez' L'Art dans I'Antiquit^. 440 POLITICS [1881 mercy; but the negotiations are resumed, and the Gonyention of Pretoria restores self-government to the Transvaal, except in regard to relations with foreign countries and native races, and establishes a British Resident Under pretence of chastising a border tribe, the French enter Tunis, and compel the Bey to invest France with a virtual protectorate. Mahomet Achmet of Dongola proclaims himself the Mahdi, and raises the Sudan against the Khedive. 2165. Asia. Skobeleff takes the Turkoman stronghold of Geok Tepe, and orders a wholesale massacre. 2166. England. BAndolph Churchill explains his ideas of Tory ns32 democracy, and wins a steadily increasing influence in the ^ provinces. The Primrose League is founded. A Channel Tunnel is discussed, but disapproved by the military authorities. 2167. Ireland. The ' Eilmainham Treaty ' is arranged by which Pamell is released on promising to put down outrage. Forster resigns, and Lord F. Cavendish becomes Chief Secretary, but on his arrival is murdered with Burke, the Permanent Secretary, in Phoenix Park. The Prevention of Crimes Bill is therefore passed. 2168. France. Grambetta's ministry falls, after 10 weeks' power. 2169. Italy. In consequence of the French policy in Tunis, Italy enters the Triple Alliance. 2170. Austria. An insurrection in Dalmatia, Bosnia, and Herzegovina, aided by Pauslavist adtators, is suppressed. Anti-Semite riots oegin. 2171. Russia. Gortschakoff and Ignatieff, leaders of the anti-German party, are dismissed, and Giers becomes Foreign Secretary. 2172. Greece. Tricoupis attempts to create a fleets army, roads, rail- ways and harbours, but reduces the country to bankruptcy. 2173. America. Chinese immigration is suspended for 10 years. The Panama Canal is begun. 2174. Africa. Arabi leads a movement against foreign influences in Egypt. The English fleet arrives, and, on the murder of some Euro- Seans, bombards Alexandria. The English army is landed, and Wolseley efeats Arabi at Tel-el-Kebir. Arabi is banished for life to Ceylon, and 12,000 men are left to restore order. Italy takes possession of Assab Bay, in the Red Sea, extends her coast possessions North and South, and founds the colony of Eritrea. The German Colonial Society is founded. De Brazza founds Brazzaville and Franceville near the Congo, and obtains a protectorate of the surrounding territory for France. 2175. Asia. The cotton duties in India are abolished. 1882] CULTURE 441 3488. Archaeology. Flinders Petrie begins to excavate in Egypt. 3489. Economics. Henry George's Progress and Poverty urges the substitution of a single tax on rent for existing taxes. 3490* mstory. Ranke's History of the World. The Vatican archives are thrown open to students. 3491, Social. The German Emperor sends a message to the Reichstag, indicating a programme of social reform. Alfred Russell Wallace founds a Land Nationalisation Society, and urges the purchase of existing rights and the revival of the yeomanry cl^. Hyndman, Morris and Bax found the Social Democratic Federa- tion. The Married Women's Property Act gives the wife complete control of her property. 3492. Deaths. Beaconsfield, Bluntschli, Carlyle, Dostoievsky, Littr^, Lotze, Mariette, Schleiden, Dean Stanley. 349s. Amexican Ch. Dr Clark, a Congregationalist, founds the ri&&2 Society of Christian Endeavour. ^ Ward Beecher declares himself an Unitarian. 3j^4. Church Hist. Blunt's Future of Islam. Lyall's Asiatic Studies. 3496. Eng. Lit. Walter Besant's All Sorts and Conditions of Men. Froude's Life of Carlyle. 3496. French Lit. Mallarm^'s L'Apr^ Midi d'un Faune. 3497. American Lit. Howells' A Modem Instance. 3498. Science. Eoch's paper on the Aetiology of Tuberculosis. S499, Art. Gounod's The Redemption. Wagner's Ring of the Nibelungs is performed in London. Oscar Wilde's Lectures on the Decorative Arts explain the aims of the Aesthetic movement. 3500. Ftiilosophy. Leslie Stephen's Science of Ethics sets up a standard of social efficiency. Frey, a Positivist, and Fiske introduce Spencer's philosophy into the United States, and attempt to combine the Unknowable and Humanity. 3501. Econoxnics. Jevons' State in relation to Trade repudiates laissez faire. 3502. Law. Martens' Consular Law in the East. 3503. History. S^nart's Ldgende de Buddha denies the existence of a historical personality. 3504. Education. Elementary education in France is made com- pulsory. 3505. Social. Pastor Bodelschwingh establishes a Labour Colony near Bielefeld. Rudolph Meyer and Vogelsang found Catholic Socialism in Austria. 3506. Deaths. Auerbach, Louis Blanc, Darwin, Emerson, Gambetta, Garibaldi, T. H. Green, Jevons, Le Play, Longfellow, Pusey, Rossetti, Schwann, Skobeleflf, W. G. Ward, Wohler. 442 POLITICS [1883 2176. France. Feny returns to power. ri883 Ghambord dies without leaving or naming an heir. '- 2177. Bulgaria. Alexander restores the Constitution, and the Russian ministers resign. A Russian plot to kidnap the Prince is discoyered. 2178. Turkey. Bismarck notifies his desire that nothing further ehould be done by the Powers for the assistance of the Christian subjects of the Sultan. Prussian officers are employed to drill the Turkish troops. 2179. America. A Civil Service Act introduces competitive examina- tion. 2180. Australasia. A Federal Council is created to legislate on fisheries, intercolonial legal process, the influx of criminals, etc. The Council possesses no executive power, and New South Wales and New Zealand hold aloof. The reouest of Queensland, which needs cheap labour, to be allowed to annex New Quinea is refused by England. 2181. AMca. A French war with Madagascar begins. France occupies Obok. The Khedive abolishes the joint control, and appoints an English financial adviser. A Legislative Council and Gfen^^ Assembly are created, but possess little power. The Dervishes destroy Hicks' £!g3rptian army in Eordofan. 2182. Asia. A French Protectorate is declared over Annam and Tonkin, with commercial privileges and the administration of the customs. The Ilbert Bill, to extend the jurisdiction of the rural Criminal Courts over Europeans, excites the violent protests of Anglo-Indians, and a compromise is made. 2183. En^and. A Franchise Bill is introduced with uniform nogM household and lodger franchise for boroughs and counties. '- Cairns carries an amendment demanding the disclosure of the Oovem- ment's redistribution scheme. The Bill is reintroduced in an autumn session, and a compromise effected, a Redistribution Bill being jointly drafted by the leaders of both parties. An Imperial Federation League is formed. 2184. France. No more life senators are to be created. 2185. Germany. The Liberal Union joins the Fortschrittspartei and becomes the Freisinnige, led by Bichter. 2186. Norway. After 12 years' struggle, the Left compels the King to accept a ministry resting on a majority. Democratic reforms are intro- duced ; but the Sverdrup ministry proves clerical, and is deserted by the radicals under Bjomson. 2187. America. Cleveland defeats Blaine (whose nomination splits the Republican vote), and lowers the tariff. 1884] CULTURE 443 5507, RuBsion Ch. The Raskolniks are allowed to hold office. riAA<) 5508, Church mst. The ' Didache ' is published. ^ S609. Eng. Lit Stevenson's Treasure Island. Eichiml JefFeries' Story of My Heart Olive Schreiner's Storjr of an African Faim. The Irish Literary Societv is founded in London. 3510. French Lit. Bourget s Essais de Psychologie Contemporaine. Amiel's Journal is published posthumously. GWs (Comtesse de Martel) Autour du Mariaga 8511, Morwegian Lit. Garborg's Peasant Students. Bjomson's Beyond Human Endurance. S512, Science. Maxim invents an automatic machine-gun. Sachs' Physiology of Plants. Weierstrass' Elhptic Functions. S61S. Art. Orchardson's Voltaire at the Due de Sully's. Morelli's Criticisms on Italian Painters. 3514, Philosophy. Green's Prolegomena to Ethics restates and de- velopes the central positions of Kant's teaching. 3515, Philology. Brugsch's Inscriptiones Aegyptiacae. Skeat's English Dictionary. 3516, History. Reusch's History of the Index of Forbidden Books. Seele/s Expansion of England. Seebohm's English Village Community attacks the Mark theory. 3517, Politics. Lester Wani's Dynamic Sociology. 3518, Economics. Earl Menger attacks the extreme historical school. Sidgwick's Political Economy modifies the Ricardian system. 3519, Law. Stephen's History of Criminal Law in England. 3520, Agriculture. An Agricultural Holdin^^s Bill secures compensa- tion to tenants at the end of their tenancies, without power to the parties to contract out of the Act. 3521, Social. The ' Fabyans ' leave the Social Democratic Federation. 3522, Deaths. Conscience, GortschakofT, J. R. Green, Salar Jung, Manet, Marx, Sabine, Siemens, Turgeneff, Veuillot, Wagner. 3523, French Ch. The Pope exhorts the Bishops not to show n 334 hostility to the Republic. '• 3524, Ai^can Ch. Hannington becomes Bishop of Eastern Equatorial Africa, but is murdered 1885. 3525, Science. Ray Lankester founds the Marine Biological Associa- tion. Owen's British Fossil Reptiles. G. W. Hill determines the inequalities of the moon's motion, due to the non-spherical nature of the earth. Flower becomes Director of the Natural History Museum. 3526, Art. Dvorak's Stabat Mater. Mackenzie's Rose of Sharon. 444 POLITICS [1884 2188. AfHoa. The Convention of London is signed with the Transvaal. The Resident is withdrawn ; the assertion of Suzerainty is dropped ; Great Britain retains the right to veto treaties concluded by the South African Republic with foreign powers. Basutoland is placed under the English Grown. Native courts are established in Egypt with native and foreign judges. Baring returns as Gonsul-Greneral. Gordon is sent to inriw- draw the European residents from the Sudan, and reaches Khartoum, where he is cut off by the Dervishes (March). A relief expedition under Wolseley is sent out (Aug.). Bismarck calls a Conference at Berlin for the discussion of Airican affairs. Germany establishes a Protectorate over To^oland, the Came- roons, and South- West Africa, north of the Orange River. England establishes a Protectorate over Somaliland by accord \¥ith Italy. 2189. Asia. France annexes Tonkin, and seizes two towns in Annaux. France occupies Grand Bassam and Porto Novo. Russia annexes Merv. 2190. England. The Redistribution Bill merges boroughs under [1005 15,000 in county districts, allows one member to towns under ^ 50,000, and two to towns under 165,000. Except for these and the City of London, one member districts are universal. 160 seats are extinguished. Gladstone's Government falls on an amendment to the Budget ^une). Salisbury becomes Premier. 335 Liberals are returned, 249 Uonservatives, 86 Irish Home Rulers (Nov.). Gladstone is now believed to accept the principle of Home Rule. Chamberlain's * unauthorised programme ' demands 'ransom ' from the rich, e.g. free education, improved dwellings at fair rents, a land bill, allotments, free libraries, abolition of indirect taxes, the restoration of commons, disestablishment, graduated taxation and burdens on land- owners. 2191. Prance. The Scnitin de Liste is introduced. Ferry falls in consequence of a repulse at Hanoi. 2192. Bulgaria. Eastern Roumelia throws off the Turkish yoke, joins Bulgaria, and is accepted by Prince Alexander. Servia invades Bulgaria and is repulsed. 2193. Africa. Stewart, with an advance guard, defeats a Dervish force at Abu Elea (Jan. 14). Khartoum is taken and Gordon killed ^an. 26). Two days later Wilson sights Khartoum, but retires. The Sudan is evacuated, and the Mahdi becomes supreme, but dies a few months later, and is succeeded by the Kalifa The Berlin Congress recognises the Congo Free State, and declares the Congo open. A British Protectorate is proclaimed over North Bechuaualand, and South Bechuanaland becomes a Crown Colony. 1886] CULTURE 445 5627. Philology. Christ's edition of the Iliad tries to reconcile Wolf and Nitzsch by asserting that Homer composed independent lays, but with a general idea. Murray edits an English Dictionary. 5628. PoUticB. Spencer's The Man versus the State champions extreme individualism. 5629. History. Duchesne edits the liber Pontificalis. Justin Winsor edits a History of America. S6S0. Anthropology. Andrew Lang's Custom and Myth attacks the philological treatment of mjrths, and seeks their explanation in folklore. S631, &cial. A Boyal Commission on the Housing of the Working Classes is appointed, under Sir Charles Dilke. Bismarck declares in favour of the right to labour for the able-bodied, support for the infirm, and pensions for old age. S6S2, Deaths. Domer, J. B. Dumas, Pawcett, Bartle Frere, Lasker, Lepsius, Martensen, Mignet, Pattison, Wendell Phillips, Todleben. 5653, Eng. Ch. Drummond's Natural Law in the Spiritual r^^^ World assumes that the spiritual and natural belong to the same ^ world-order. 5654, Qermon Ch. Beyschlag's Life of Jesus denies the personal pre- existence of the Logos. S6S6, Russian Ch. Tolstoi's My Religion declares non-resistance the central point of Christ's teaching, and urges a literal fulfilment of His precepts. 5556. American Ch. The Mormons split into a polygamic and mono- gamic section. 5557. Eng. Lit. Pater's Marius the Epicurean. Leslie Stephen edits a Dictionary of National Biography, with the assistance of Sidney Lee, who succeeds him as editor. 3638, French Lit. Vogiid's Le Roman Russe attacks French realism. Verlaine's Jadis et Nagufere. Bourget's Cruelle finigme. 3539, German Lit. ' Jung Deutschland,' a collection of Ijnncs, mainly by new poets, appears. 36jjfl, Art. Suliiyan composes music for Gilbert's The Mikado. Onslow Ford's statue of Folly is bought bv the Chantrey Bequest 3541. Science. Pasteur cures a boy of hyarophobia. The efficacy of the treatment is contested ; but persons bitten by mad dogs are sent firom all parts to Paris. De Bary's Lectures on Bacteria. Neumayr recognises climatic zones in the Jurassic rocks of Europe, and constructs a map showing the divisions of land and sea during the Jurassic age. 3542, Philosophy. Royce's Religious Aspects of Philosophy. 3643. Philology. Fleischer's Arabic Philology. Carl Abel's Philological Essays. 3644' History. Denine's Mediaeval Universities. 446 POLITICS [1885 England proclaims a Protectorate over the Niger Coast and River, and chaxters the Royal Niger Com|)any. Qermany gains territory in the interior of the Zanzibar Protectorate. Italy occupies Massowah. 2194. America. Gable's The Silent South calls attention to the treat* ment of necroes. The Saskatchewan rebellion is crushed. 2195. Asia. Disputes arise as to whether Penjdeh is within the Afghan Boundary. Russia suddenly ejects the Afghans from Penjdeh (March). Gladstone asks for 11 millions, but a compromise is made allowing Russia the road and the Afghans the command of the pass. English troops invade Upper Burmah and annex it. Fruice makes peace with China, which withdraws its claims and recognises the Protectorate over Annam and the possession of Tonkin. 2196. AoBtralasia. A British Protectorate is declared over the south of New Quinea in consequence of the annexation of the north by Germany. 2197. England. The Government is beaten on an Amendment rioog to the Address on Allotments and resigns, and is replaced by ^ a Ministry under Gladstone, who introduces a Home Rule Bill and a Land Purchase Bill (April). The Home Rule Bill is defeated on second reading by 341 to 311, 93 Liberals, including Bright, Chamber- lain, Courtuev, Goschen, Hartington and James, voting in the majority (June 7). Gladstone appeals to the countnr and is defeated. Harting- ton refuses to form a Ministry, and Salisbury becomes Premier. Randolph Churchill, the leader of the House, shortly resigns, differing on questions of public expenditure (Dec). 2198. Prance. Boulanger becomes Minister of War. Freycinet expels the members of the ruling families. 2199. Germany. King Ludwig of Bavaria commits suicide. 2200. Russia. Russia repudiates the clause of the Berlin Treaty making Batoum a free port, and fortifies it. 2201. Bulgaria. Austria threatens to join Servia, and Alexander there- fore makes peace. He is kidnapped by Russian agents, but restored by Stambuloff; but he is so unnerved by a letter from the Tsar dis- approving his return that he abdicates. 2202. America. The Canadian Pacific Railway is finished. 2203. Australasia. England and Germany agree on limits for acquisi- tion in the Western Pacific. The German possession of Kaiser Wilhelm's Land, on the N.E. of New Guinea, is recognised and a line is drawn from the S.E. of New Guinea, through the Solomon Islands, then N.E. to the Marshall group. S. and E. of this Germany may acquire nothing. Samoa and Tonga are excluded. 2204. Africa. An Anglo-Grerman Agreement defines the Sultanate of Zanzibar and the spheres of influence of the two powers on the coast Gold is discovered on the Witwatersrand. 1886] CULTURE 447 5646, Econoxrdos. Gohn's Foundation of Political Economy, influenced by, but often diver^ng from, the Eatheder-Sozialisten. 3646. Politics. Maine's Popular Govemment unfavourably contrasts the English with the American Constitution, on the ground that the former offers no sufficient obstacle to precipitate legislation. EjTopotkin's Paroles d'un B^volt^ explain Philosophical Anarchism, which is also supported by !&is^ Reclus and Jean Grave. 5647, Education. Rein becomes Professor of Ped^ogy at Jena, and applies Herbart's ideas. He draws up an eight years course, beginning with Grimm's Fairy Tales and the Old Testament. 3648. Anthropology. Ratzel's History of Mankind. S649. Qeogtuphy. Ney Elias explores the Pamirs, Chitral and Gilghit. 3560. Social. Tlie Pope excommunicates the Knights of Labour, but is persuaded by Gibbons to withdraw his censure. 3661. Deaths. Grant, Victor Hugo, Lord Houghton, Mibie-Edwards, Lord Shaftesbury, Scholten. 3662. American Ch. The Bishops of the Episcopal Church r^^^ issue a Declaration concerning Unity. J- 3563. Asiatic Ch. Archbishop Benson founds a mission to aid the Assyrian Christians. 3564. French Lit. D'Aumale be(]^ueaths Chantilly to the Institute. Lemattre's Les Contemporains mtroduce impressionist criticism. 3566. £ng. Lit Rider Haggard's King Solomon's Mines. 3666. German Lit. Sudermann's Frau Sorge. 3557. Asiatic Lit. Chatterji's novel, Chrishna. 3568. Literature. Naville edits the Book of the Dead, from the oldest text. 3569. Science. Moissan isolates fluorine* ErafFt-Ebing's Psychopathia Sexualis. Milne studies earthquakes. The Severn Tunnel is opened. 3560. Axi, Max E[lin^er's Judgment of Paris. 3661. Philosophy. Nietzsche's Bevond Good and Evil. James Ward's article on Psychology. 3662. Philology. Brugmann's Comparative Grammar of Indo-German Languages. Blunt's Ideas about India advocates the restoration of native states under English control, and the reduction of expenditure. 3663. History. Lea's History of the Inquisition in the Middle Ages. Hamack's History of Dogma. Weizsacker's Apostolic Age. The English Historical Review is founded, edited by Creighton, and subsequently by Gardiner. 3564. Politics. Dice/s Law of the Constitution. Camerie's Triumphant Democracy. 3566. Anthropology. Two skeletons of low type are found in a cave near Namur, with the bones of extinct animals. 3566. Social. The Avelings undertake a Socialist crusade in America. 448 POLITICS [1886 The British East Africa Company is formed, and Lugard occupies Uganda, 1890. France obtains a virtual protectorate over Madagascar, and a footmg at Diego Suarez Bay, and declares a protectorate over the Comoro Islands. 2205. Asia. A French Protectorate is declared over Annam. The Siberian railway to Vladivostock is begun. 2206. England. Gk)schen becomes Chancellor of the Exchequer nom and W. H. Smith leader of the House. A Bound Table Conference ^ on Home Bule is held by Chamberlain, Trevelyan, Harcourt, Morley, and Herschell, and Trevelyan rejoins the Liberals. The Jubilee of the Queen's accession is celebrated. A Colonial Conference is held, and the idea of federation advances. A revival of Fair Trade agitation takes place, and Howard Vincent obtains the condemnation of nee imports at the convention of Conserva- tive Associations at Oxford. The Independent Labour Party is formed. 2207. Ireland. Balfour becomes Chief Secretary, and the Crimes Bill is carried by the closure. At the trial of O'Brien at Michelstown, the police kill one man and fatally wound two. A Land Bill facilitates purchase, and the Land Court may stay evictions and order payments by instalments. Judicial rents fixed before 1886 are readjusted with reference to the price of produce. The Plan of Campaign is announced on Lord Clamricarde's estate. 2208. Prance. Corruption is traced to Wilson, son-in-law of President Gr^vy, who is in consequence forced to resign, and is succeeded by Camot. 2209. Germany. The Kiel canal is begun. Cancer is suspected in the Crown rrince, and an operation is pro- posed. Morell Mackensde is called in and opposes it. The Septennate is renewed and the Army increased by 40,000. 2210. Italy. Crispi succeeds Depretis as Prime Minister. 2211. Bulgaria. Ferdinand of tJoburg is induced to accept the crown, but is not recognised by Germany or Russia. Stambuloff becomes Prime Minister. 2212. Russia. The Tsar accuses Germany of secretly encouraging the Prince of Bulgaria while publicly disclaiming him ; but Bismarck proves the letters on which the Tsar relies to be forgeries. 2213. AMca. Drummond Wolff's mission to Constantinople to arrange for England's withdrawal from Egypt fails on account of French pro- tests against the article permitting conditional re-entry. French Senegambia is extended to the Upper Niger. 2214. Asia. The Quetta district becomes British Beluchistan. 1887] CULTURE 449 The Social Democrats at this time separate from the Anarchists, owing to the violence of Host's paper, Freiheit. S667. Deaths. Beust, Forster, Kraszewski, Liszt, Madvig, Minghetti, Banke, Waitz. S66S, Eng. Ch. Spurgeon enters on the ' Down Orade Crusade' riggy against the new ideas of the Baptist Union, from which he ■- retires. He issues, in conjunction with 30 ministers, a circular on verbal inspiration, 1891. Cotter Morison's Service of Man asserts that morality was worst while the sway of Christianity was greatest, and looks to the spirit of social service to reform the world. 5569, Qerman Ch. The Eulturkampf is terminated, and the Pope urges the Centre to vote for the Septennate. 5570. Italian Ch. Tosti, Abbot of Monte Cassino, negotiates with Crispi for a modus vivendi, with the Papal approval. The opposition from the Curia, however, is so great that the Pope orders Tosn to dis- continue his mission. 3571. Eng. Lit. Birkbeck Hill's edition of Boswell's Life of Johnson. Barrie's Auld Licht Idylls. 3572. French Lit. The Th^tre Libre in Paris is opened for the per- formance of the naturalistic plays of Henri Becque and his disciples. 3573. Norwegian Lit. Vogt and Erag reintroduce verse, which had been repudiated, 1874. 3574. Russian Lit. Tolstoi's Dominion of Darkness. 3575. Science. The first congress of criminal anthropologists is held at Bome, under the presidency of Lombroso. Burden Sanderson's Physiology of Nerve. Hubrecht draws up a report on the Nemertea collected on the voyage of the Challenger. 3576. Art. Paderewski, a pupil of Leschetiszky, gives pianoforte recitak in Vienna. Cowen's ButL 3577. Education. Fraulein Lange begins to work for the opening of the teaching profession to women. 3578. Philosophy. Bauwenhoflf's Philosophy of Beligion. 3579. Law. Maitland edits * Bracton's Note-book.' 3580. History. Sorel's Europe et la B^volution fran9aisa Eingsford's History of Canada. Benan's Histoire du Peuple dlsraeL Euapp's Emancipation of the Prussian Peasantry founds a school of social history. 3581. Qeography. Stanley goes to find Emin Pasha. Starting up the Congo, he crosses the Bantu Borderland and discovers the Albert Edward Nyanza. 3582. Numismatics. Head's Historia Nummorum. 3583. Social. Facilities for obtaining allotments are panted. 3584. Deaths. Ward Beecher, Fechner, Bichard Jefieries, Eatkof, Kirchhoff, Jenny Lind, Stafford Northcote. a 29 450 POLITICS [1888 2215. England. Goschen reduces the interest on part of the riooo National Debt to 2f, to fall in 1903 to 2^. ^^^^ Pamell brings an action i^ainst the Times for publishing letters approving of the Phoenix Park murders. A special Commission is appointed (Sept.). County Councils are created, elected for three years by household suffrage. Lord Eosebeiy becomes Chairman of the London County Council. 2216. Germany. William L dies (March 9), and his son Frederick III. dies ^June 15). William II. becomes Emperor. Tne attitude of the Russian press becomes so alarming that Bismarck publishes the text of the Austro-Oerman defensive alliance. 2217. Africa. The Dervishes are defeated near Suakin. The British Central Africa Company begins operations. Lobengula, king of the Matabele, promises not to treat with foreign nations without English approval. Biiodes amalgamates tne Eimberley Diamond Companies. 2218. Australasia. An Imperial Defence Act provides for a force of seven men-of-war for 10 years, at the cost of the colonies. Queensland promises to share in the expenses of British New Ouinea. The New Hebrides question is settled, France and England with- drawing their territorial claims and creating a joint Naval Commission to protect life and property. 2219. America. A Treaty is made in relation to the fisheries of the N.W. coast, but is vetoed by the Senate. 2220. En^and. Pigott confesses to forging the Pamell letters, ri qqo 2Umillions are voted for 70 additional ships. ^ 2221. irance. Boulanger is denounced as a plotter by the Minister of the Interior, Constans, and flies, and is sentenced by the Senate to perpetual imprisonment. In the general election, the Comte de Paris urges Monarchists to vote for the Soukngists, who obtain, however, but few seats. The scrutin d'arrondissement is hurriedly restored. The Panama Canal Company becomes bankrupt. 2222. Germany. Geffcken is prosecuted for treason for publishing the Crown Prince's Diary during the Franco-German war. 2223. Austria. The Emperor's only son commits suicide. 2224. Servia. King Milan abdicates in favour of his son, Alexander, but retains a share of power. 2225. America. A Republic is declared in Brazil. 2226. Africa. A Charter is given to the British South Africa Company, formed by Rhodes and Beit. British Central Africa is declared under British protection, and the flag is hoisted on Lakes Tanganyika and Nyasa. France and England agree on boundaries on the Guinea Coast and Senegambia. 1889] CULTURE 451 3586. Eng. Ch. Lux Mundi, a collection of essays edited by riooo Gore, defines the position of the new Oxford moyement. ■- Martinean's Study of Religion, a theistic treatisa 8586. Church Hist. The Pope issues an Encyclical on Human Liberty. 3587. Eng. Lit. Mrs Humphry Ward's Robert Elsmere. Kipling's Plain Tales from the Hills. William Morris's Dream of John Ball. 3588. French Lit. Anatole France's La Vie Litt^raire begins. 3589. Australian Lit. Rolf Boldrewood's (T. A. Browne) Robbery under Arms. 3590. Science. The Lick Observatorv b^ns work. The Pasteur Institute is established in Paris, under Duclaux andRoux. Hertz verifies the hypothesis of Faraday and Clerk Maxwell by detecting the presence of electro-magnetic waves arising from Leyden jar or coil si>arks. Teall's British Petrography. 3591. Archaeology. 1%e University of Pennsylvania equip an expedi- tion for the excavation of Nippur. 3592. History. Zahn's History of the Canon of the New Testament. H. C. Lea's History of the Inquisition. 3593. Qeography. Nansen crosses Greenland. 359 j^ Agriculture. A Board of Agriculture is instituted. 3595. Social. Bellamy's Looking Backward, a Socialist Utopia. 3596. Deaths. Matthew Arnold, Ouyau, Maine. 3597. Eng. Ch. Mansfield Congregational College, Oxford, is r^^ggg founded. ^ 3598. Italian Ch. A statue is erected to Bruno in Bome^ on the spot on which he was burned. 3599. Russian Ch. Tolstoi's What to do. 3600. American Ch. A Catholic University in Washington is in- augurated. 3601. Church Hist. Stead's Papacy, a Prophecy, declares the PM)acy will head the Socialist movement and will become Anglo-Saxon, and will then once more dominate the world. 3602. QermanLit. liliencron's first Poems. 3603. Norwegian Lit. Bjomson recommences prose fiction with In God's Way. 3604. Science. Weismann's Essays on Heredity attempt to prove that acquired aptitudes and characteristics are not directly transmitted. Schiaparelli discovers the synchronous rotation and revolution of Mercury. Eiffel builds the Ei£fel Tower, Paris, 984 feet high. 3605. Art Stuck's Warder of Paradise. 3606. Philosophy. Nietzsche becomes insane. 3607. Philology. Henry Nettleship's Contributions to Latin Lexico- liagarde's Formation of Nouns in Aramaic, Arabic, and Hebrew. 29—2 452 POLITICS [1889 Salisbary remonstrates against the establisliment by Portu^ of a new province on both banks of the Zambesi, barring advance into the intenor. A French expedition forces Dahomey to respect the protectorate over Porto-Novo and to cease from incursions. King John of Abyssinia is defeated and slain by the Dervishes, and Menelek succeeds. By the treaty of Uchali, as interpreted by Italy, Abyssinia becomes an Italian protectorate. Italy establishes her influence over the whole Somali coast from Gape Guardafui. The Brussels Conference takes further steps to suppress the slave trade, and regulates the sale of guns and liquor to the native. 2227. Asia. Japan obtains constitutional government. -J228. Australasia. England, Germany, and the United States create a Supreme Court and a municipal council in Samoa under a president representing the Powers. 2229. England. In consequence of the case of O'Shea v. qsoO Pamell, Gladstone advises the latter to resign his position. The *- Irish Nationalists, with the exception of Kedmond and a few others, renounce his leadership and elect Justin McCarthy Chairman of the party. 2230. Germany. Bismarck is succeeded by Caprivi as Chancellor. Heligoland is handed over to Germany by England. The Anti-Socialist law of 1878 is repealed. 2231. Austria. The Toung Czechs defeat a proposal for separate administration of the German and Czech portions of Bohemia. The Old Czechs, who have accepted the plan under protest, are routed at the general election. 2232. Spain. Sa^ta introduces universal suffrage. 2233. Holland. The King of the Netherlands dies, leaving a daughter, Wilhelmina, and Luxemburg becomes an independent neutral state under the Duke of Nassau. 2234. America. Sherman's Silver Bill is carried, authorising the purchase of 42 million ounces of silver bullion monthly, and the issue of Treasury notes in payment. McEinley's Tariff offers reciprocity where it f&vours home manu- £Gu;tures. France and England delimit the fisheries of Newfoundland. 2235. Australasia. At the suggestion of Sir Henry Parkes a Con- ference is held at Melbourne to discuss Federation. Full self-government is conceded to Western Australia. 2236. AJbica. Germany surrenders the region north of the British East A£rica Company, and acknowledges the British Protectorate over 1890] CULTURE 453 W. D. Whitney edits the Century Dictionary. 5608. Education. An Intemationtd Catholic University is founded in Fribourg. The Welsh Intermediate Education Act carries out Sir Hugh Owen's schemes for secondary education. 5609. History. Mas Latrie's Tr^or de Chronologic. Bresslau's Handbook to the Study of Original Documents. 8610. Politics. Bryce's American Commonwealth, a study of political institutions and ideas. $611. Social. The London Dockers' strike is led by Bums, Mann, and Champion. Manning, Sidney Buxton and the Lord Mayor form a Com- mittee of Conciliation, and the men obtain an advance from bd. to M. an hour, and a minimum employment of four hours. The London County Council suggests, but fiedls to carry, the principle of Betterment. Crispi transfers ecclesiastical endowments in Italy to a poor fund, administered by local boards. 3612. Deaths. Anzenffruber, Augier, Bright, Browning, Jefferson Davis, Lightfoot, Bitschl, Scherer. S61S. French Ch. P6re Didon's Vie de J&us. r^ggQ 3614. Eng. Ch. On the instigation of the Church Association, '- the Bishop of Lincoln is prosecuted for ritualistic practices in the Arch- bishop's Court. The Judgment decides against the Bishop in reference to mixing water with wine, the hiding of the Manual Act, and the siting the Cross in the Absolution and the Benediction, and is received with general satisfaction. 3616. Russian Ch. The crisis of the persecution of the Jews occurs, and protests are sent frt>m England. Baron Hirsch attempts to organise Jewish colonies in Argentina. 3616. Church Hist. Lenormant, Bartolo, and other Catholic scholars who have accepted some of the results of modem criticism are silenced. 3617. Eng. Lit. Stead edits the Eeview of Reviews. 3618. French Lit. Villiers de Tlsle- Adam's Axel, a Symbolist drama. 3619. American Lit. John Hay's Poems. 3620. Russian Lit. Tolstoi's Ereutzer Sonata. 3621. Science. Sophus Lie invents a mediod of analysis by groups. Poincar^'s Elecmcit4 et Optique. The Forth Bridge is opened, its central spans being 115 feet longer than that of Brooklyn. 3622. Art. Puvis de Chavannes leads a secession of artists from the Salon in the Champs Elvs^es, and exhibits in the Champ de Mars. 3623. Philology. Tick s Comparative Grammar of the Indo-Germanio Laiiguages, aided by Whitley Stokes and Bezzenberffer. Uatzfeldt and Darmesteter's Dictionnaire de la ikngue Frangaise. 3624. Philosophy. lady's Serious Thoughts. 3625. Economics, l^urshall's Principles of Economics. 454 POLITICS [1890 Zanzibar. England recognizes Qerman rights over the coast to Mozam- bique, and German influence in the Hinterland up to Lake Tanganyika and the Congo State. England may extend her southern provinces towards the ^mbesi. A further agreement revises the boundaries in the Niger regions and divides the German Protectorate of Togo and the Gold Coast Colony. A Convention with Portugal gives England the control of the Ijower Zambesi and the right to colonise the central territory up to the Congo State. An Anglo-French Convention recognises British control over Sokoto and the Lower Niger, and recognises the French sphere of influence between Lake ChiMi, the Niger, and Algeria. France recognises a British Protectorate over Zanzioar and Pemba, and England recognises a French Protectorate over Madagascar. The French destroy the Empire of Ahmadou, and take Timbuctoo. Bechuanaland is placed under the Governor of British Bechu- analand. The Chartered Company enters Mashonaland. Rhodes becomes Prune Minister of Cape Colony. In consequence of the enormous influx to the mines the period of naturalisation in the South African Republic is raised from 5 to 14 Uganda is occupied by Captain Lugard on behalf of the East African Company. 2237. Bn^and. The Newcastle Programme is drawn up, ad- riggi vocating Home Rule, Local Veto, the Disestablishment of the ^ Church in Wales, Parish Councils, Reform of the House of Lords. Registration Reform. '2238. France. Boulanger commits suicide. M^line introduces rigid protection. Cardinal Lavigerie announces his adhesion to the Republic. 2239. Germany. The Emperor concludes reciprocity treaties with Austria, Italy, Russia and other countries. 2240. Norway. Norway demands an independent foreign policy. 2241. Russia. A French loan is floated and a French fleet is enthu- siastically welcomed at Cronstadt. 2242. Switzerland. On the demand of 50,000 citizens, any project must be submitted to the people. 2243. America. Baron Hir8(ui settles Russian Jews in Argentina. 2244. Australeusia. Ballance (succeeded by Seddon) forms a radical- socialist ministry in New Zealand. A progressive tax is laid on land and income, life senators are abolished, female suffrage is introduced, and labour is protected. A Convention in Sydney draws up a Federal Constitution ; but the scheme receives little support from the politicians. 1891] CXTLTURE 455 3626. Politics. Tarde's Lois de rimitation declares imitation the chief factor in sociological development. Dilke's Problems of Greater Britain. 3627. History. Mahan's Influence of Sea Power, 1660-1783, followed by works on the French war and the life of Nelson, found the philosophy of naval history. Sybel's Founding of the (German Empire. 3628. EdncatiozL Free Elementaiy Education is established in England. 3629. Anthropology. Frazer's Golden Bough, a study of Greek mytho- logy. 3630. Social. An International Congress on Labour is held at Berlin. Booth's In Darkest England and the Way Out outlines a scheme of social reform, including Farm Colonies and Emigration. A farm is taken at Hadleigh, Essex. Pastor Naumann's Social Programme of the Protestant Church, an address to an Evangelical Congress at Berlin, revives Protestant Socialism. The Housing of the Working-Classes Act is passed, by which resi- dents may initiate inquiry, and destroy bad property, and public authorities m^ compuisonly buy land and erect houses. The first May-Day Celebration of Labour is held. Baring's Bank fails, owing to the failure of South American securities. Braille invents a method of writing for the blind. S63t. Deaths. Andrassy, Burton, Church, Delitzsch, Dollinger, Hase, Gottfried Keller, Liddon, Newman, Schliemann. 3632. Bng. Lit John Oliver Hobbes* (Mrs Craigie) Some Emo- r^ggj tions and a Moral. '- 3633. Eng. Ch. Driver's Introduction to the Old Testament Church's History of the Oxford Movement. 3634. Italian Gh. Rudini attempts to persuade the Pope to recognise the Law of Guarantees ; but the rope demands full independence. 3636. French Lit Sardou's Thermidor. Talleyrand's Memoirs are published by the Due De Broglie, but are declared spurious by Aulard and others. 3636. Literature. Eleonora Duse makes her d^but at Vienna and Berlin. 3637. Science. Harvard University founds an Observatory at Arequipa in Peru. 3638. Philosophy. Oliver Lodge calls the attention of the British Association to the need for scientific investigation of occultism. 3639. Education. An attempt to render Greek optional at Cambridge is defeated. 3640. History. BilbassoflTs Catharine II. of Kussia. Sjnimbacher's History of Byzantine Literatura Firth edits the Clarke Papers. 456 POLITICS [1891 2245. Africa. The British South Africa Ck)iDpany receiyes the territoir under British influence north of the Zambesi, except Nyasaland, which is declared an English Protectorate under an Imperial Commissioner. England obtains pre-emption of the Portuguese sphere of influence. An Anglo-Portuguese Ck)nvention agrees on boundaries north and south of the 2ambesi, which is opened to all. England permits Italy to occupy Eassala. The first of a series of French expeditions is undertaken against Samory, who is captured 1898. The British East Africa Company announces its intention of evacu- ating Uganda. 2246. En^and. Hartington becomes the Duke of Devonshire, n ggo and Chamberlain leads the Liberal Unionists in the Commons. ^ A Liberal majority of 40 is returned, and Gladstone becomes Prime Minister for the fourth time. 2247. France. The Panama scandals are revealed. The Pope orders French Catholics to accept the Republic. 2248. Germany. A Bill providing for the religious education of children in Prussia by the clergy is hotly attacked and withdrawn. The Duke of Cumberland, late King of Hanover, makes his sub- mission, and the Guelf fund is restored to him. 2249. Portugal. The payment of interest on two^thirds of the debt is suspended. 2250. Norway. A conflict breaks out over the appointment of Consuls, which the Chamber declares a purely Norwegian matter. The King declares that all changes must be jointly made by the two countries. 2251. Russia. On the death of Giers, Lobanof succeeds and pursues a strongly Slavophil policy in the Balkans, Servia, Monten^gro^ and Bulgaria. Witte becomes Minister of Finance. A party is formed in Russian Poland to demand the revival of Poland as a democratic and Socialist republic. 2252. Asia. The Indian Councils Bill permits election to the Viceregal and Provincial Councils. 2253. America. Cleveland becomes President of the United States for the second time. 2254. Africa. Abbas, a youth of 18, succeeds his father Tewfik as Khedive, but ^ews himself far less friendly to English influences, and the nationalist party raises its head. 1892] CULTUKE 457 Round's Introduction of Knight Service into England shews that the military obligation of the tenant-in-chief was settled by the King, irre- spective of the size of his holding. S64I, Politics. Qoldwin Smith's Canadian Question advocates the union of Canada with the United States. 3642, Art. Richmond decorates the interior of St Paul's Cathedral. Sullivan's Ivanhoe is produced at the new English Opera House. 3643, Economics. Bohm-Bawerk's Positive Theory of Capital. 3644, Geography. Peary crosses Greenland to the North. 364s, Anthropology. Westermarck's History of Marriage. 3646, Social. The Pope's Encyclical on Labour condemns Socialism and strikes, and advocates the revival of gilds. A comprehensive Public Health Act is passed. 3647. Deaths. George Bancroft, Bradlaugh, Gr^vy, Granville, King- lake, Kuenen» Lagarde, Lowell, Sir John Macdonald, Meissonier, Moltke, Pamell, Reuss, Windhorst. 3648, Eng. Gh. A conference is held at Grindelwald, to discuss r^ogo the reunion of the Established Church and Nonconformist bodies. ^ 3649. Church Hist. Mrs Lewis discovers the Old Striae version of the Gospels in St Catherine's monastery, on Mount Sinai. 8660, Eng. Lit. Kipling's Barrack-Eoom Ballads. Lord de Tablev's Poems. Zangwill's Children of the Ghetto. Hardy's Tess. Austin Dobson's 18th Century Vignettes. 3661, French Lit. Zola's La D^blU^le. 3662, German Lit. Sudermann's The Home (Magda). 3663, Belgian Lit. Maeterlinck's Pell^ et M^lisande. 3664, Science. Romanes' Darwin and after Darwin. Haffkine begins to study Asiatic cholera. Horsley and other scientists defend vivisection. 3666, Art. Parry's Job. 3666. Philology. Darmesteter edits the Zend-Avesta. 3667, Philosophy. Simmel's Science of Ethics maintains that the moral system resulting from the struggle of forces expresses only the tendency of the majority. 8668. Politics. Faguet's Politiques et Moralistes fran9ais du 19^me Si^cla 8669. Education. A Herbart Club is founded in America. 3660, Social. The Pioneer Club for Ladies is founded in London. A Commission on English Labour is appointed. Malabari obtains the raising of the age of marriage for girls in India to 12. 3661. Deaths. Adams, Freeman, Ihering, Lavigerie, Lipsius, Manning, Owen, Renan, Spui^eon, Taine, Tennyson, Whitman, Whittier. 458 pouTics [1893 2255. En^ond. The Becond Home Rule Bill retains the Irish r^ggo members at Westminster and makes no reference to the land. ^ In Committee, 'in and out' is changed to 'always in/ The third reading passes by 34 votes, but the Bill is rejected by the Lords by 419 to 41. 2256. France. A Eussian squadron is welcomed at Toulon. 2257. Ghermany. A Military Bill increases the army and shortens the period of service to two years. The Socialists obtain two million votes at the elections. 2258. Italy. Giolitti falls in consequence of Bank scandals, and Crispi forms his second Ministry. 2259. Spain. Castelar retires from public life, but advises his followers to join the Liberal party. 2260. Belgitun. Plural voting is allowed for wealth and education, and to fathers of families, but no one is entitled to more than three votes. The exercise of the vote is rendered obligatoiy. 2261. Greece. The pavment of the debt is suspended. 2262. America. Cleveland revokes the compulsoiy purchase of silver. The Behring Sea Arbitration is held at Paris. The United States are ordered to pay compensation, and new regulations are introduced. The World's Fair is held at Chicago. A Bepublic is proclaimed in Hawaii, and ia recognised by the United States. 2263. Australia. A great financial depression occurs. 2264. Asia. Lanessan, Governor of Indo-China, attacks Siam, which vainly appeals to England for aid. Siam is forced to accept an ulti- matum, ceding 50,000 square miles and commercial privileges, and )aying a heavy fine. At the same time the frontier dispute with England is settled. The Indian Mints are closed to the free coinage of silver, as a preliminary to the establishment of a gold standard. The value of the rupee is fixed at 1^. id, 2265. Africa. Dahomey becomes a French Protectorate. The British East Africa Company evacuates U^nda. Gerald Portal is sent to report, and strongly reprobates evacuation and recom- mends the construction of a railway. Eruger is for the third time elected President of the South African Eepublic; but Greneral Joubert, the candidate of the Progressives, obtoins almost as many votes. Natal obtains complete self-government. A conflict breaks out between the Matabele and the Chartered Company, which takes Bulawayo after some fighting. Lobengula flies and Bulawayo becomes the capital of Rhodesia. Lobengula dies and the military system of the Matabele is broken up. The Khedive dismisses his ministers and appoints anti-English advisers, but is forced to dismiss his new premier. El 1893] CULTURE 459 366iB, German Ch. Gizycki and Fdrster found an Ethical Move- ^393 ment. '■ 3663. American Ch. Briggs, a Presbjrterian, is suspended for hetero- doxy. 3664. Russian Ch. The Stundists are persecuted and banished. 3665. Chnrch Hist. Michaud edits the Revue Internationale de Thto- logie, chiefly for the purpose of discussing and promoting reunion. 3666. Eng. Lit. Ellis and Teats edit Blake's mystical works. Le G^ienne's Eeligion of a Literary Man. Pinero's Second Mrs Tanqueray. Davidson's Fleet Street Eclogues. 3667. French Lit. H^r^ia's Les Troph^s. Sardou's Mme Sans-G6ne. 3668. Science. Zirkel's Handbook of Petrography. 3669. Art. Tschaikowsk/s ' Pathetic ' Symphony. Furtwangler's Masterpieces of Greek Scmpture. F. G. Gould begins to draw for the Westminster Gazette. 3670. Philosophy. Huxley's Romanes Lecture declares the ethical process contrary to the cosmic process. Bradley's Appearance and Reality. Fouill^e's Psychologie des Id^-Forces. 3671. History. Lavisse and Rambaud edit a General History. Hamack's History of Christian Literature before Eusebius. Vinog^radoff proves Folkland was not ager publicua. 3672. Politics. Giddings* Sociology lays stress on kinship. Pearson's National Life and Character declares the white races limited in powers of adaptability, and therefore of colonisation, and that the pressure from the yellow and black races may possibly prove irre- sistible. 3673. Geography. Nansen starts in the Fram for the arctic regions. Leaving the vessel, he reaches 86° 14' N. latitude, in longitude 95' K, 200 miles nearer the Pole than any previous explorer. On his return he further explores Franz Josef Land. 3674. Agriculture. Lord Winchelsea forms an Agricultural Union. 3676. Social. Stead's If Christ came to Chicago. Women's Franchise is adopted in New Zealand. Wages Boards are instituted in Victoria, with power to fix a mini- mum rate of wages in certain trades. A Royal Commission reports that the London Water Companies cannot long provide the required supply. The County Council sub- sequently resolve to purchase the undertakings at their then value ana seek an additional supply in Wales, but are prevented by Parlia- ment. 3676. Deaths. Blaine, Ford Madox Brown, Ferry, Gounod, Jowett, Macmahon, Tschaikowsky, Tyndall. 460 POLITICS [1894 2266. En^and. Parish Councils are created. ri894 The Lords insert * contracting out' in the Employers' *- Liability Bill. Gladstone withdbraws the Bill and in his last speech in Parliament deplores the action of the Upper Chamber. Harcourt imposes sliding-scale death-duties. 2267. ScoUand. A Standing Committee is appointed for the considera- tion of purely Scotch measures. 2268. Ireland. The Lords reject an Evicted Tenants' BiU. Lord Rosebery declares Home Eule impossible till the 'predominant partner* is converted. Plunkett founds the Agricultural Organisation Society. ^ 2269. France. Camot is murdered, and Casimir-P^rier becomes President. Dreyfus is arrested as a spy. 2270. Germany. A commercial treaty is made with Russia which proves very unpopular with the farmers and leads to the fall of Caprivi, who is succeeded as Chancellor by Hohenlohe. 2271. Italy. In consequence partly of economic misery and partly of socialist agitation, riots occur in Sicily. Crispi and other ministers are discovered to have received money from the Banca Romana. 2272. Spain. Certain of Cast^lar's followers are admitted into the Council of Regency. 2273. Belgium. The Socialists gain a number of seats, the Liberals are routed, and the Ultramontanes become supreme. 2274. Bulgaria. Prince Boris is baptized in the Greek Church, and Stambuloff is dismissed, Ferdinand hoping thereby to conciliate Russia. 2275. America. Cleveland repeals the McEinley Tariff. 2276. Africa. Rhodes' Glen Grey Act breaks up the system of natire communal ownership and compels natives who do not hold land to work during part of the year. A British Protectorate is announced over Uganda, and a railway is begun 1896. A boundary is agreed on between the French and Belgian Congo. Swaziland is placed under the protection of the Transvaal Italy takes Eassala from the Dervishes. 2277. Asia. A revolt in. Korea causes the King to ask China for aid. Japan also sends troops, and proposes a joint administration. China replies that Japan must evacuate before negotiation. Japan refuses, and informs China that she will regard the farther despatch of troops as a casus belli, and orders Korea to dismiss the Chinese troops. Korea proposes simultaneous evacuation. Japan demands delay, seizes the King, and attacks the Chinese (July 25). War is declared (Aug.) and Port Arthur is captured by the Japanese. Massacres occur at Sasun in Armenia. The Powers interpose, and are invited to assist in an enquiry. 1894] CULTURE 461 S&r7. Eng. Ch. Lord Halifax and the Abb^ Portal, a French ry^i^ priest, discuss reunion. Portal visits the Pope, who approves ^ the project, and llampolla writes a semi-official letter of encouragement. Duchesne at the same moment declares his conviction of the validity of Anglican orders. Halifax introduces Portal to Archbishop Benson, who, however, declines to commit himself. Illingworth's Bampton Lectures on PersonaUtv. S678, Spanish Gh. Plunket, Archbishop of Dublin, consecrates Cabrera Bishop of the Spanish Protestants. 8679, Anstrian Gh. The Hungarian Ministry establishes compulsory civil marriage and freedom of worship. 5680, American Ch. Hecker's Life is published, with a preface by Archbishop Ireland, and is translated into Frenclx, with a letter of approval irom Cardinal Gibbons; but an attack on Hecker's memory and the American Cardinals receives the Vatican imprimatur. 5681, Church Hist. The Gospel according to St Peter is discovered in an Egyptian tomb. The Armenian Patriarch visits Rome to discuss reunion. A pro- gramme is agreed on, and an Encyclical to the Churches of the East is issued; but the Armenian massacres stop further negotiations. The Pope's proposals are rejected by the Greek Patriarch, Anthimus. 8682, Education. A Circular is issued by the London School Board, proposing direct dogmatic teaching. 8688, Eng. Lit. Kipling's Jungle-BooL Mrs Steel's The Potter's Thumb. George Moore's Esther Waters. Du Manner's Trilby. John Watson's (Ian Maclaren) Beside the bonny Briar Bush. 868^, French Lit. Zola b^ns his 'Trois ViUes,' Lourdes, Bome, Paris. 8686, Rnssian Lit. Anton Tchekhoff's In the Twilight, a collection of stories. 8686, Science. Dewar liquefies oxygen. Maxim invents a flying-machine of 8,000 lbs., with two engines of 300 horse-power. Roux discovers that the serum of the blood of a horse mitigates diphtheria. 8687, Art. Humperdinck's Hansel and Gretel. Aubrey Beardsley becomes Art Editor of the Yellow-Book. Schack bequeatlis his pictures to the German Emperor, who allows them to remain in Munich. 8688, Philosophy. Meinong and Ehrenfels discuss the subjective ele- ments in value. S689. Politics. Kidd's Social Evolution attempts to apply biology to sociology, and declares reason the selfish element, and religion — which is by its nature non-rational — the unselfish and progressive element in 8690, History. Flint's History of the Philosophy of History in France. Sidney and Beatrice Webb's History of Trade Unionism. 462 POLITICS [1895 2278. Ireland. In view of the expiry of the judicial term of rigge 15 years, Morley introduces a Land Bill to amend that of 1881, U^^*' exempting all tenants' improvements from rent, removing obstacles to certain tenants coming into the fisiir-rent court, and wolishing the right of pre-emption. 2279. England. Bosebery's Government falls on a vote in refer- ence to the supply of cordite, and the Conservatives obtain a majority of 150. 2280. France. Bourgeois forms a homogeneous Radical Ministrx. 2281. Germany. The Baltic Canal is opened. 2282. Austria. Liiger, an Anti-Semite, becomes Burgomaster of Vienna. 2283. Bulgaria. Stambuloff is murdered. 2284. Greece. Tricoupis falls, and retires from public life. 2285. America. Cleveland claims that English interference with the boundary between British Guiana and Venezuela is forbidden by the Monroe doctrine, and recommends resistance by the United States ' by every means in its power' to any attempt to appropriate land which an American Commission declares to belong to Venezuela (Dec. 17). 2286. Africa. Disputes arise between the Transvaal and Great Britain in reference to commandeering and to the closing of the Drifts over the Orange River. An ultimatum in regard to the latter causes the Transvaal to give way. The Transvaal National Union issues a mani- festo setting forth the grievances of the Outlanders. Khama visits London to protest against the absorption of Bechuana- land in Cape Colony. A narrow strip is given to the Chartered Com- pany for the railway to Matabeleland. Dr Jameson, the Administrator of the Chartered Company's terri- tories, invades the Transvaal from Bechuanaland (Dec. 29). England recaptures the Eastern Sudan. Sir Edward Grey announces that French occupation of the Upper Nile would be regarded as an un&iendly act. An ultimatum to the King of Ashanti from the Gbvemor of the (}old Coast demands the fulfilment of treaty obligations. 2287. Australia. New South Wales rejects a Federal Constitution. 2288. Asia. The Rosebery Cabinet decide to evacuate Chitral. Lord Elgin, the Viceroy, protests, and the Salisbury Government retains it Bobertson, the British political agent at Gilgit, is invested in ChitraL Two relieving forces are sent, one of which suffers severely in the Mala- kand Pass. The Japanese capture Wei-hai-wei and other strongholds. China makes peace, pays an indemnity, cedes Formosa and the Liao-Tun^ peninsula, and opens new treaty ports (April). Russia^ France and Germany protest against the cession of mainiand, and Japan surrenders the penmsula and Port Arthur in return for an increase of the indem- nity. Korea proclaims itself independent. Russia and England delimit the Pamirs. A massacre of Armenians in Constantinople begins (Sept). 1896] CULTDKE 463 Pollock and Maitland's History of English Law. 3691. Social. Compulsoiy Arbitration is adopted in New Zealand. The Trade Union Congress adopts Socialist resolutions. Lord Salisbury introduces, but fails to carry, a bill for the exclusion of destitute aliens. 3692, Deaths. Brugsch, Carriere, Helmholtz, Hertz, 0. W. Holmes, Kossuth, De Lesseps, Gomte de Paris, Stevenson. 369S. Eng. Ch. Lord Halifax visits the Pope, who issues an nggg Apostolic Letter, Ad Anglos, in which, however, he shews no '■ recognition of the English Church. The Revue Anelo-Komaine is founded to work for reunion. A Catholic Cathedral at Westminster is commenced. 3694* American Ch. The Protestant majority in Manitoba refuses to continue to support separate Catholic Schools. In the following year, an attempt is made to arrange for religious instruction on the basis of facilities for Catholic and Protestant teaching according to numbers. In 1897 the Pope advises the acceptance of a compromise. 3695, Eng. Lit. W. B. Yeats' Poems. S696, Literature. Brandes' Study of Shakspere. 3697. Science. Ramsay and Rayleigh discover argon in the atmo- sphere. S698. Art. Kraus' History of Christian Art. 3699, Philosophy. Balfour's Foundations of Belief criticises naturalism, asserting that the dicta of physical science rest on assumptions, and vindicates the claim of authority to be the guide of life. Nordau detects tokens of degeneration in the popular interest in Wagner, Zola, Tolstoi, Ibsen, and other dominant intellectual forces of the time. $700, mstory. Seeley's Growth of British Policy from Elizabeth to William IIL S701, Education. The French Universities become once more partially independent of the Minister of Education. 8702. Politics. Durkheim explains historical progress by economics, particularly by the division of labour. $703. Anthropology. A skull, a femur, and two teeth are discovered in tertiary strata, Java. Their possessor is named by Dubois, the discoverer. Pithecanthropus Erectus. $704, Deaths. Bonghi, Cayley, Randolph ChurchiU, Dumas, Freytag, De Giers, Huxley, Karl Ludwig, Pasteur, Sybel. 464 POLITICS [1896 2289. England. Rosebery resigns the leadership of the Liberal rj^goA Party in consequence of his views on the Armenian qnestion *- (Oct.). G. W. E. Russell founds the Liberal Forward movement. Chamberlain proposes a Colonial ZoUverein. The Bating Bill relieves the occupier of agricultural land for five 3^ears of half me rate payable on baildings and other hereditaments. 2290. Ireland. A Land Bill, partly based on Morley's Bill of 1895, fiBM^ilitates purchase and further extends the rights of tenants in regard to improvements. A Committee on Irish Finance reports that Ireland is overcharged. 2291. France. The Tsar visits Paris. The Chamber approves but the Departments condemn the plan of a Progressive Income-tax. Bourgeois resigns and M^line forms a ministry. 2292. Germany. Bismarck reveals that a treaty, unknown to AostriA^ existed with Russia 1887-90. 2293. Austria. The artisan classes are enfranchised. 2294. Turkey. Christians are massacred at Canea ; but a proposal by the Powers to blockade Crete is rejected by England. The National Bank in Constantinople is attacked by Armenians, and a new massacre takes place. 2295. America. Bryan is nominated by the Democratic Convention and the Populists on a policy of free coinage of silver at 16 to 1. McEinley, the Republican candidate, obtains 271 votes, Bryan 176. Launer, a Liberal, becomes Premier of Canada. Nicaragua, Salvador and Honduras form the Republic of Central America^ for foreign relations. 2296. Australasia. Tasmania adopts the Hare system of election. 2297. Afirica. Jameson is stoppea by a Boer force near Domkop and surrenders. The leaders of the Reform movement are imprisoned. The Emperor William con^tulates President Kruger, and Rhodes resigns tne Cape Premiership. A Committee of the Cape Assembly report that Rhodes engineered the Raid. The Transvaal sends laige orders to Europe for guns and ammunition, and hastens the construction of forts at Pretoria and Johannesburg. A rising takes place in Matabeleland. Sir Ridiard Martin is sent to report on the administration of the Chartered Company, against which he draws a severe indictment. Kitchener nghts his way from Wady Haifa to Dongola. Forces are brought from India at India's expense. Coomassie is entered without fighting, and Prempeh is captured. An Italian army is almost annihilated at Adowa, and tne Protec- torate over Abyssinia is withdrawn. Madagascar is annexed to France, and the commercial treaties of other nations are annulled. General Gallieni becomes governor. Asia. England and France arrange their frontiers in Siam. A revolt breaks out in the Philippines. 1896] CULTURE 465 5705. Eng. Ch. Acting on the report of a Commission, of nogo which Gasquet is understood to be the movinff spirit, the Pope ^ condemns Anglican orders. Gladstone publisnes a letter on the de- cision. The Kevue Anglo-Romaine is suppressed, and the attempted rapprochement comes to an end. Purcell's Life of Manning is hotly attacked by many Catholics as a misrepresentation. 5706. Eng. Lit. Mrs Steel's On the Face of the Waters, a tale of the Indian Mutiny. Stephen Phillips' Christ in Hades. Watson's Purple East, and Year of Shame. Wheatley prints an almost complete edition of Pepys' Diaiy. 5707. French Lit. Barr^s' Les D^cin^ 5708. Italian Lit. Scartazzini's Enciclopedia Dantesca. 5709. Science. Lowell discusses the ' Canals ' of Mars. Langley constructs a flying machine which rises 90 feet and flies half a mile. Boltzmann's Kinetic Theory of Gases. Bontgen, Professor at Wurzburg, accidentally discovers the X-rays, to which many substances, opaque to ordinary rays, are transparent. 5710. Art. Leighton's Clytie. The Kelmscott Chaucer, with designs by William Morris and £ume< Jones, is issued. 5711. Philosophy. Sabatier's Philosophy of Religion. MacTaggart's Studies in the Hegelian Dialectic defends the Logic against the criticisms of Trendelenburg, Seth, and other writers. Stout's Anal3rtic Psychology. 5712. History. Lea's History of Auricular Confession and Indulcences. Renouvier's Philosophie Analjrtique de I'Histoire surveys the de- velopment of morals, reugion, philosophy and science. S71S, Politics. Lecky's Democracy and Liberty criticises democratic ideas and practice in a hostile spirit Godkin s Problems and Unforeseen Tendencies of Modem Democracy. S7H, Law. The German Civil Code, the result of 30 years' labour, is adopted, marking the decisive victory of German over Roman Law.. 5715. Geography. Jackson explores Franz Josef Land, and discovers it is merely a group of islands. Sven Hedin crosses the Takla Makau desert Sir Martin Conway crosses Spitzbergen from east to west. 5716. Education. The Universities of Prussia admit women to the lectures. A Bill is introduced, largely based on the Church of England Memorial, 1895, creating new Ikiucational Authorities, increasii^ the grant to all Voluntair Schools, limiting the School Board rate, and pro- viding facilities for denominational teaching. Owing in part, however, to criticisms by Unionist members, the Bill is withdrawn. 5717. Deaths. Challemel-Lacour, Curtius, Du Bois Reymond, Pr6re- Orban, Leighton, Lobanof, Millais, William Morris, Parkes, Treitschke, Tricoupis. G. 30 466 POLITICS [1897 2298. En^and. The Diamond Jubilee is celebrated. ri|^gg» England denounces the treaties with Belgium and Germany ^ which prevent preference being given by Canada to Great Britain. 2299. nunoe. A Fnmco-Russian Alliance is proclaimed (Aug.). Scheurer-Kestner demands the revision of the condemnation of Dreyfus and declares Esterhazy the author of the bordereau. 2300. Spain. Canovas is murdered and Sagasta becomes Premier. Weyler is recalled from Cuba, and autonomy is promised. 2301. Austria. Badeni's decree that future candidates for the civil service in Bohemia and Moravia must know Czech is fiercely opposed by the Germans. 2302. Hungary, The Kossuthists oppose the renewal of the Ausgleich. 2303. Greece. The Cretan insurgents proclaim union with Greece, and Prince George and Colonel Vassus are sent to Crete. The Powers occupy Canea and promise autonomy, if the Greek force retire, and, on refri^ shell the insurgents. Strong feeling is aroused in England and Gladstone publishes a pamphlet. Armies now gather on the frontier of Thessaly and Epirus. The Powers declare that the aggressor shall not benefit. After a raid by the Hetairists Turkey declares war (April 7). 100 Members of the English Parliament send a telegram of sjrmpathy to Greece. Edhem Pasha invades Thessaly, and Greece speedily begs the Powers to intervene (May 8). The Turkish frontier is pusned nirther south, and Turkish troops remain in Thessaly till an indemnity is paid. 2304. America. Gk)ld is discovered at Elondyke. The Venezuela Arbitration Treaty is signed, but the (Jeneral Arbi- tration Treaty is rejected by the Senate. Hawaii is annexed by the United States. 2305. Africa. The Boer Republics make a defensive treaty. A Committee of Inquiry into the Jameson raid is held at West- minster. Rhodes admits that he prepared an insurrection and an incursion, and confesses he had not informed the Chartered Company or the High Commissioner, but denies that he knew of the actual Biaid. Colonel Frank Rhodes declares that the plot in Johannesburg cost £250,000. Schreiner, late Attorney-General of Cape Colony, testifies to the disastrous effect of the Raid on race feeling. The Committee strongly condemns Rhodes; but Chamberlain refrises to dismiss him from the Privy Council, and declares that he has done nothing incon- sistent with the character of a man of honour. The Transvaal Alien Immigration Bill is repealed on Chamberlain's protest that it violates the Convention of 1884. The English Administrator in Zanzibar is instructed not to recognize slavery or restore slaves to their masters. The Soudanese troops in Uganda mutiny. Owing to the massacre of a British expedition sent to protest against human sacrifices, Benin is occupied. The Egyptian army takes Berber, and Italy hands over Kassala. 1897] CULTURE 467 3718, French Ch. P6re Olivier declares the burning of the rtggw Paris Charity Bazaar a mark of God's wrath against those who ^ reject the teaching of the Church. 8719, Russian Gh. The Doukobortsi are persecuted for refusing to undergo military service. 3720, Ohnrch ffist. The *Logia' are found on the site of Oxy- rhynchus, and contain a Pantheist reference. The first Zionist Congress is held at Basle, under the direction of Herzl and Nordau, to promote the resettlement at the Holy Land. The rich Jews, with few exceptions, hold aloof fiN>m the movement. 8721, Eng. Lit. The Browninfi; Letters are published. Forbes Robertson presents Hamlet at the Lyceum. 8722, German Lit. Sudermann's Johannes. 8725, ItaUan Lit. D' Annunzio's Triumph of Death. 872^, Science. Bichard improves Lippmann's discovery of colour photography. Geikie's Ancient Volcanoes of Great Britain. Suess' Form of the Earth. Bamsay discovers Helium. Moissan and Dewar liquefy fluorine. 8726. Art. Bvam Shaw exhibits ' Love's Baubles ' and ; The Comforter.' Ladv Wallace presents to the nation the pictures inherited by her husband from the Marquis of Hertford. The Tate Gallery is founded in London. Stanford's Requiem. 8726, Anthropology. Max Miiller's Contributions to the Science of Mythology are attacked by- Andrew Lang on the ground of the undue importance attached to the evidence of language. S72nf, Philology. Bacchylides' poems are found. S72S, History. Maitland's Domesday Book and Beyond rejects the theory of a servile origin of the village, and declares the manor merely the unit of assessment. Eoberts' 41 Tears in India. Crozier's History of Intellectual Development. S7W, Economics. Sidney and Beatrice Webb's Industrial Democracy explains the theory and structure of Trade Unions, and recommends the State organization of labour. 5750, Politics. John Morley's Bomanes Lecture on Macchiavelli pro- tests against the divorce of ethics from politics. Bloch's Future of War maintains tnat war between the nations of Europe is impossible except at the price of national suicide. 5751, Education. The proposal to grant degrees to women at Cam- bridge is rejected by a large majority. Lord Salisbury's Government abolishes the 17^. 6(2. limit, and grants an average of 5«. extra to the children of Voluntary Schools. Sadler reports on the state of elementary education in foreign countries. 5752, Geography. Andr^e attempts to reach the North Pole in a balloon, but is not heard of again. 30—2 468 POLITICS [1897 2306. Asia. The plague breaks out at Poona, and two English Plague Commissioners are muidered. India suffers from a terrible famine, for the relief of which £500,000 is collected in England. In revenge for the murder of Grerman missionaries, Germany obtains Eiao-Chau from China on a lease of 99 years. The Afridis attack the English posts in the Khyber. Tirah is occupied, and on the approach of winter Lockhart informs the tribes that ne will return in the spring. The King of Korea proclaims himself Emperor. A Russo-Japanese Convention pledges tiie signatories to maintain order, while leaving tlie Emperor free. 2307. Ireland. County and District Councils are created. ri898 2308. France. Zola writes his letter ' J'accuse' to the President^ *- and is condemned for asserting that Est^erhazy was acquitted 'by order.' On the discovery of Henry's forgeries, Brisson, who has succeeded M^line, sends the case to the Court of Cassation, but falls in con- sequence and is succeeded by Dupuy. Delcass^ remains Foreign Minister. 2309. Italy. Partially in consequence of the rise in the price of bread, riots break out in Milan and other towns. A commercial treaty is concluded with France. Crispi is censured by the Chamber for his conduct in reference to the Neapolitan bank. 2310. Germany. The Emperor visits the Holy Land. 2311. Austria. The Emwess is murdered at Geneva. 2312. Holland. Queen Wilhelmina comes of age. 2313. Greece. The loan is negotiated and Thessaly is evacuated. Prince George of Greece is appointed Governor of Crete. 2314. Russia. The Tsar invites the Powers to cooperate with him in the reduction of armaments (Aug. 24). 2315. America. The cry for intervention in Cuba is strengthened by the destruction of the Maine in Havana harbour (Feb. 15). An ultimatum orders Spain to relinquish her authority in Cuba and to withdraw her forces (April 19), but no reply is received. A Spanish fleet is destroyed at Manila by Dewey (May 1) ; and Sampson destroys tiie chief Spanish fleet as it tries to escape from Santiago (July 8). The town surrenders (July 13), and Spain asks terms (July 26). Cuba is to become a Protectorate, and the future of the Philippines is to be settled at a Conference. Peace is signed at Paris (Dec. 10), the United States obtaining Cuba and Porto Rico and paying £4,000,000 for the Philippines, which, however, require to be con^uer^. 2316. Africa. Schreiner forms a ministry in Cape Colony resting principally on Dutch votes. £30,000 a year is offered towards the expenses of the Imperial navy. 1898] CULTURB 469 Mary Eingsley's Travels in W. Africa. Zurbriggen, a Swiss guide employed by Fitzgerald, ascends Acon- cagua in the Andes. 3733. £k)cial. Lord Penrhyn and his quarrymen disagree. A strike for an Eight Hours' day begins among the Engineers in London and spreads through the country. A Bill to compensate for accidents in dangerous trades and on buildings over 30 feet high is carried, despite the protest of extreme Conservatives. Either party ma^ contract out with the approval of the registrar-general of Friendly Societies. The Act is extended to include agricultural labourers, 1900. The Commission on Agricultural Depression presents its final report, recording a slight improvement in the situation. Charles Booth completes his study of the London Poor. 3734, Deaths. D'Aumale, Brahms, Canovas, Daudet, Drummond, Henry Oeorge, Hutton, Sachs, Vacherot, Weierstrass. 3736. Eng. Ch. The Benefices Act forbids the public sale of r^ggg advowsons and increases the power of bishops. In the discussion, ^ the question of ritualism is raised. Samuel Smith, John Eensit, Harcourt's Letters to the Times, and Walsh's Secret History of the Oxford Movement attack the ritualist party. 3736. Asiatic Ch. The German Emperor receives the plot of ground at Jerusalem known as La Dormition de la Vierge, and presents it to the German Catholics. 3737. Bug. Lit. Watts-Dunton's Aylwin. Elizabeth and her German Garden. Sidney Lee's Life of Shakspere. The Ashbumham Library is sold. 3738. French Lit. Rostand's Cyrano de Bergerac. Huysmans' La Cath^drale marks his entry into the Symbolist move- ment. 3739. Belgian Lit. Maeterlinck's Wisdom and Destiny. 3740. Science. Crookes' address to the British Association discusses the exhaustion of com, and calls attention to psychic phenomena. Hans GadoVs Classification of the Vertebrata. Dewar liquefies and solidifies hydrogen. Bastian lectures on Aphasia. Ramsay and Travers discover Neon and Metargon, constituents of air. 3741. Art. Rodin's statue of Balzac. Sargent's portrait of Asher Wertheimer. 3742. Philosophy. Shadworth Hodgson's Metaphysio of Experience attacks the conception of Cause, which must ever remain unexplained, and substitutes that of Real Condition, which simply expresses the empirical fact of causal relation between existents without assumptions aB to the nature of the relation. 3743. Philology. Frazer's edition of Pausanias. 3744* Politics. Pobyedonostsefi''s Reflections criticise liberalism in 470 POLITICS [1896 England and Germany obtain the rereiaoii of PortngaTa African pOflseMionSy Belagoa Baj to &U to England. An An^o-French Agreement ra- ^ cession^ hghts, leaving it to each bishop, however, to determine whether or no to enforce it. Lord Halifax declares the judgment ' one of the greatest misfortunes that have fallen on the Church since the Oxford movement' ; but Dean Hole and others resign their membership of the English Church Union. S761, Irish Ch. Balfour issues a manifesto in favour of a Catholic University, but obtains no support from the other members of Lord Salisbury s Government. S752, American Ch. The Pope addresses a letter to Cardinal Gibbons, condemning the * Americanism ' of Hecker. Sheldon's didactic tale. In His Steps, obtains an unprecedented circulation. S76S. Eng. Lit. Stevenson's Letters are published. Gk)sse's Life of Donne. S76Ji^ American Lit. F. P. Dunne's Mr Dooley in Peace and War. S756, Russian Lit. Gorski's novel, Thomas Gordeyev. S756, Norwegian Lit. A national Norwegian theatre is opened. 8757. Science. Sclater's Geography of Mammals. 472 POLITICS [1899 3324. Asia. Gold is made legal tender in India. 2825. America. An attempt to settle the Alaska boundary fails. The Arbitrators on the boundary of British Guiana and Venezaela award England the Schomburgh line, with two small exceptions. 2326. Afirfoa. The Grown buys the dominions of the Niger Company. England and France agree as to the division of North Africa. The Khalifa is kiUed by Wingate on the White Nile (Nov.). Rhodes arranges with Germany for a telegraph and railways in South East Africa. A petition, professing to be signed by 21,000 Johannesbur;^ Out- landers, is forwarded to the English Government (^March), and a fruitless conference is held at Bloemfontein, Kruger refusing to grant a 5 years' franchise. Milner^s despatch of May 4 on the grievances is now published. A 7 years' franchise is enacted by the Transvaal, and England suggests a joint Commission on the new law. Before replying, the Transvaal offers more than Milner has asked, on condition that the present occasion should not be regarded as a precedent for future mterference. This condition is refused, and the offer is withdrawn. The invitation to a joint Commission is now accepted ; but the English Government declares it is too late. England proposes a 5 years' fran- chise,— one quarter of the Baad to represent the gold-fields, — equality of languages in the Raad, and a vote for the President. These proposals, convj^ed in a despatch which reasserts the suzerainty claim, are rejected. Tiie English Cabinet reply that they will formulate new proposals (Sept. 22). On Oct. 7, however, the order for the mobilisa- tion of an Army Corps is given, the Reserves are called out, and Parliament is summoned. Eruger hereupon demands the withdrawaJ of troops on the frontier, and the recall of the reinforcements and of the troops now at sea (Oct. 9). The demands are refused, and the Boers enter Natal, and besiege Mafeking and Eimberley. The Boers are defeated at Glencoe (Oct. 17), and Elandslaagte (Oct 21); but 900 men are cut off at Nicholson's Nek (Oct. 30), and Ladysmith is surrounded (Nov. 1). Methuen sets out to relieve Eimberley, and wins at Belmont, Graspan, and Modder Biver (Nov.), but is defeated at Magersfontein (Dec. 12). Gatacre is repulsed in a night attack in the north of Cape Colony (Dec. 10), and Builer's Ladysmith relief column fails to cross the Tugela at Colenso (Dec. 15). In conseq^uence of the week of disaster. Lord Roberts is appointed Commander-m-Cluef, and Lord Eitchener is summoned from Egypt as Chief of the Staff, the difficulties involved in the campaign in Natal rendering it impossible for Buller adequately to supervise the operations in other parts. Canada and the Australasian colonies send volunteers to the war, and a quickened sense of the unity of the Empire begins to prevail. 1899] CULTURE 473 Marconi experiments in wireless telegraphy. The malarial mosquito is discovered. J. J. Thomson developes the theory that matter can exist of less mass than the atom of hycurogen. The Geological Survey in the N. W. Highlands establishes the base of the stratimiphical series. 3768, Art. Thomeycroft's statue of Cromwell is placed outside West- minster HalL 3769. Philosophy. Ward's Gifford Lectures criticise naturalism and the system of Herbert Spencer. 3760, History. Maitland proves that the supremacy of Canon Law in England before the Reformation was virtually uncontested. 3761, Politics. Bosanauet's Philosophical Theory of the State explains its organic nature, ana claims permanent value for the teaching of Eousseau and Hegel. Benoist's Crise de Tfitat Modeme advocates representation not of numbers but of interests and professions. 8762, Economics. Bernstein criticises Marxian Socialism from an evolutionaiy standpoint, which is adopted by several of the leaders of the Social Democratic Party in Germany. 8763. Educatioxi. Robson's Bill raises the age of Half-Timers from 11 to 12, carrying out a promise made by the English representative at the Berlin Laliour Conference, 1890. A Board of Education is created, consisting of a President and of the Lord President of Council, the Secretaries of State, etc., i)08sibly aided by a Consultative Committee, uniting the Education with the Science and Art Department. 3764* Social. An International Women's Congress is held in London. Bills for enforcing automatic couplings and for checking the practice of Secret Commissions are withdrawn. A Bill is passed to facilitate the nurchase of houses by workmen. A Federation of Trade Unions for fighting purposes is organised ; but many Unions stand aloof. A Committee of the Commons^ presided over by Chaplin, recom- mends a scheme for a pension of bs, to Is, a week at 65 years of age, if the candidate is of good character, does not possess more than 10^. a week, and has made an atj^empt to save. The Licensing Commission issues a Majority and Minority Report The latter, drawn up by Lord Peel, the Chairman, recommends that a seven years' notice shaU be substituted for money compensation, which shall only be granted if the license be extinguished before the expiry of the notice. 3766, Deaths. Rosa Bonheur, Biichner, Bunsen, Castelar, Cherbuliez, Herschell, Nubar Pasha, Pailleron, Weiszacker. APPENDIX A. BIBLIOGRAPHY. WoikB of Baferonoe. Austria. Bibliographies. Spain. Enoyolopaedias. Politics. General Political History. Culture. Uniyersal. Portogal. General European. Italy. Periods of European History. Politics. General CnltiiTe. Culture. General Sarreys and Histories of Switierland. Special Sabjeots. Politics. Periods in the History of Culture. Culture. Holland and Belgium. Politics. Politics. Church History. Culture. Literature. Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Science, Art, Philosophy. BuBsia. Social History. Politics. Scotland. Culture. Politics. PyxrfH Periods of European Literature, 'BsXiaxo^s Literature of Europe, PrOlss' Neueres Drama, 6. Art. Carri^re's Kunst u, Culturentwickelung, 5. Bosanquef s Aesthetic, Taine's PhUosophie de VArt, 2. Kugler's Schools of Painting, 4. Fergusson's Modem Architecture, Lubke's Sculpture, vol. 2. Rockstro's Music, Moral Science. Fischer's Neuere PhUosophie, 8. Hoffding's Modem Philosophy, 2. Lange's Materialism, 3. Pfleiderer's Philosophy of Bdigion since Spinoza, 2. Jodl's Ethik, 2. Sidgwick's History of Ethics, Janet's PhUosophie Politique, 2. Pollock's Science of Politics, Qierke's Althusius, Franck's Publicistes, 3. Ingram's Political Economy, Kautz* NationcUdJtonomie, 2. Natnral Science. BuckloT's Short History of Science, Butt's Astronomy, Cajori's Physics, Mach's Mechanics, Sachs' Botany, Meyer's Chemistry, Hirsch'si/isGrinn. Carus'^bo^^. Ball's i/a^A«ma/iic« (abridged as * Primer'). Cantor's Vorlesungen iiber Math, (to 1758), 2 — 3. Zittel's Oeologie, Qeikie's Founders of Oedogy, Kobell's Mineralogie, Peschel's Erdkunde, Du Bois Reymond's Beden, 2. Tyndall's Fragments of Science, 3. Law. Walker's Law of Nations, Education. Schmidt's Pddagogik, 3 — 4. Quick's Educatumal Beformers, FMlology. Muller's Classische Philologie. Pattison's Essays, vol 2. Benfey's OrieTUalische Philologie, 478 APPENDIX A B. Periodi. Beard's Lectures on the Reformation. Moller's The Reformation, StdckTa Philosopkie d, MtttelalterSj vol, 3. Hefele's Conciliengeich., 8 — 9 (Hei^nrotlier^. Maurenbrecher'B KcUholuche Reformation. Drummond's Eraemtu, 2. Seebohm's Froteitant RevoltUion. Pastor's Reumonebestr^mngen. Profit's Agrippa, 2. Roth's Veealitu. Prowe's Copernicus^ 2. (Q.) Qothein's Loyola. Ward's ConsUer- Reformation. Philippson's CorUre-r^ffoltttion religieiLse. Dejob's LinJhufRjoe du ConcUe de Trente. Nisard's Gladiateurs de la R^niblique d. Lettres, 2. Pattison's Casaubon. DOUinger's Bellanmn, and MorcUstreitigkeiten in d. Kath. Kvr^te. Sayous' Litt&atwre fran^ise d V^tranger^ 4. Muther's Modem Painting^ 3. Nippold's Neueste Kirchengesch., 4 Blennerhassett's M^^ de Stad, 3. Janet';} Philosophie de la RivoltUion frangaise. Cheyne's Founders of 0. T. Criticitsn^ Nash's History of N. T. Criticism^ Brandes' ffauptetromungen d. Litteratur cL 19n de Lorraine d la France, 4. De Broglie's Fr4dirio II et Lome XV, 1742—4; Marie T?i&49e, 1744 — 6 ; Saxe et UArgeneon; La Paix dPAix-la-Chapdle', Le Secret du Rot, 1752 — 74; L* Alliance Autrichtenne, Flammennont's Maupeou et lee Parlements. Taine's Ancien RSgime. TocqueviUe's Ancien Regime, Foncin's Ministhre de Turgot. Ch^rest's Chute de VAncien Regime, 3. Champion^s Lee Cahtera de 1789. Lichtenberger's Socialisme dans la Revolution frangaiee. Doniors Revolution et la Feodaliti. Debidour's L'iglise et Vitat, 1789— 187a Jervifi^ Oallican Church and the Revolution, Bicard's Cardinal Maury, Aulard's Revolution frangaise. Sorers Revolution frangaise, 4. Sybel's French Revolution, 4. Taine's La Revolution, 3. Stem's Mirabeau, 2 (French Tr.). Willert's Mirabeau, Neton's SieyU, Bird's L4gendes revolutionnaires, Daudet's L^J^igrcUion, 3. Blennerhassett's Mme de Stad, 3. Pierre's AssembUes politiques, 1789— 1876, 2. Sciout's Le Directoire, 4. lyHausson- ville's LJSglise Romaine et le Premier Empire, 5. Taine's Regime Modems, vol. 1. Masson's Napoleon et sa FamiUe, 4. Welschinger's Enghien; La Censure; Divorce de Napoleon; Ney. Vandal's Napoleon et Alexandre III, 3. Houssaye's 1814, and 1815, 3. Yieil-Casters La Restauration, 20. Thureau- Dangin's Parti Liberal sous la Restauration, Barante's Royer-CoUard, 2. Thureau-Dangin's Monarchxe de JuiUet, 8. Hillebrand's Frankreich, 1 830 — 48, 2. D'Haussonville's Politique Ext4tieure, 1830 — 48, 2. Guizot's Memoires, 8. Lacombe's Berryer, 3. Blanc's Dix Ans, 5. Pierre's Revolution de 1848, 2. Le Qorce's Deuxiems Empire, 3. Daniel's Annee Politique (since 1859). Ollivier's L Empire Liberal, 3. Senior's Conversations in France, 6. Mazade's Thiers, Denis* Histoire Contemporaine, 3. Daudef s Due d'Aumale, Sorel's Eistoire diplomatique de la Ouerre, 1870 — 1, 2. Hippeau's Hiet, diplo- matique de la troisihne republique, Zdvort's Troieiime Republi^ue, 3. Simon's Oouvemement de Thiers, 2. Beinach's Ministhre de Gambetta, Coubertin's Third Republic. Bodle/s France, 2. Lowell's Governments and Parties, voL 1. Bambaud's La France Coloniale, Culture, QeneraL Bambaud's Civilisation frangaiee, 3. Grands J^Jcrivains Frangaie, ed. Jusserand. Julleville's Litterature Frangaise, 3 — 8, and Thedtre en France, Faguet's Litterature Frangaise, and jS^tudes litteraires, 4. Sainte-Beuye's Lundis, 28. Bruneti^re's J^tudes Critiques, 6, and Histoire de la Critique. Egger's ffeUinisme en France, 2. Bossel's Relations litteraires avee VAUe- magne. Paradol's Moralistes franpais, Quett^'s Vltglise de France, 8—12. Jervis* Church in France till 1789, 2. Felice's French Protestants. Flint^s Philosophy of History, voL 1. Ldvy-Bruhl's Philosophy in France, Levas- seur's Classes Ouvrihres, 4. Compayrd's Doctrines d'ikiucation en France, SL Kingsley's French Art, BIBLIOGRAPHY 485 Periods. Sainte-Beuve's Po^ne frangaite au l^hne siide. Darmesteter et Hatzfeldt's IQhne si^de. Mrs Pattison's Renaissance in France, 2. Gebhardt'n Bahelais. Rohinaou^a Margaret of Navarre. DeaisLrdina* Moralistes Jran^is au 16dm« sikde. Christie's Dolet Lenient's Satire en France au IQhne siicle, 2. Bourciez' La (hur de Henri IL Waddington's Rarmu. Jourdain's L* University de Paris, Douarche's L* University de Paris et les J4su\tes. Oyren's Sceptics of the French Renaissance, Lownde^ Montaigne. Baudrillart's Bodin, Haag's La France Protestante, 10. Hamon's Francois de Sales, 2. Damiron's Philosophie en France au VJhne sikcle, 2. Pujol's Richer, 2. Perraud's VOratoire. Houssaye's Bundle, 3. Sainte-Beuve's Port Royal, 7. Beard's Port Royal, 2. Cousin's Jacqv£line Pascal ; La Soci^t^ au 1 7hne si^de, 2 ; Mme de SahU. Peirens' Libertine au I7hne sikde. Maury's Acad^mie des Bdles-Lettres. Bertrand's Acad^mde des Sciences, 1660 — 1793. R^belliau's Bossuet. CrousU's Bostuet et F^nelon, 2. De Broglie's Mabillon, 2, and Montfaupon, 2. S^Ws Demiers Jans^nistes, 1710 — 1870, 3. Damiron's Philosophie en France au IShne si^e, 3. Coquerel's Eglises du d^ert, 2. Lady Dilke's French Painters, Architects and Sculptors of ISth Century, 3. Desnoiresterres' Voltaire, 8. Morley's Voltaire; Rousseau, 2; Diderot, 2; Miscellanies, voL 2. Lichtenberger's Socialisme en France au IShme siede. Lavergne's ^Iconomistes frangais au l^hne sikde, Higgs' The Physiocrats, Berthelot's Lavoisier, Lom^nie's Beaumarchais, 2. Jusserand's Shakspere in France, D'Haussonville's Salon of Mme Necker, 2. Goncourt's Soci^ pendant la R^oltition, 2. Debidour's LJ^lise et vitat, 1789—1870. Jervis' Oallican Church and the Revolution, D'Haussonville's Viiglise romaine et le Premier Empire, 6. Qirandeau's Presse P&iodique, 1789 — 1887. Picavefs Ideologues, Sainte-Beuve's Chateaubriand, 2. Taine's Regime Modeme, ¥oL 2. Faguet's Politiques et Moralistes, 3. Bavaisson's Philosophie en France au \9hne siide, Maury's R^veU rdigieux, 1810 — 50, 2. FoiBset's Lacordaire, 2. Mrs Oliphant's Montalembert, 2. Booth's St Simon, Weill's Ecole Saint-Simonienne, Littr^'s Comte, Rapports sur les progrhs des Sciences en France, 1867 (Zoologie, Min^ralogie, Physiologie, Q^metrie, G^logie, Histoire, etc.). Lenient's ComMie en France au \9hne si^de, 2. Bruneti^re's PoAie lyrique au I9hne si^le, 2. Claretie's Peintres et Sculpteurs cantemporains, 2. Lagrange's Dupanloup (£ng. Trans.), 2. Mrs Bishop's Mrs Craven, Ricard's Lavigerie, Frankland's Pasteur, Darmesteter's Renan, Bourgef s Psychologie Contemporaine, 2. Symons' Symbolist Movement, Lemattre's Les Contemporains, 8. Germany. Politics. GeneraL Dahlmann-Waitz* Deutsche Quellenkunde, Allgemeine Deutsche Bio- graphic, Kaemmel's Deutsche Oeschickte, Droysen's Preussische Politik, 4—14 Bryce's Holy Roman Empire. Tuttle's Prussia tUl 1740. Jaussen's Deutsches Volk, 2—5 (to 1618). 486 APPENDIX A Periods. Ulmann's Maximilian^ 2. Ranke's BeuUche OeBch, im Zeitalter dL Reformatiany 6. (K T. of vols. 1—3.) Baumgarten's Kari V, a Ritter's OegenreformaHon^ 2. Gardinei^s Thirty Tears War, Winter's Dreistigfdhriger Krieg, Erdmazmaddrfier'B DeuUche OescL 1648—1740, 2. Lavisse's Youth of Frederick the Oreaiy and Fr4d6ric avant Vav^nement, Tuttle's Frederick 11^ 2. Eoeer's Friedrich IL Schofer's Siebenjtihriger Krieg^ 3. Schmoller's WirthachafiUche Folitik Friedrichs, and Preuseiache Finampolitik, Ranke's Oeeterreidi und Preuseen 1748 — 63, and Deutsche Mdchte u. d. FUrstenbundy 1780—90. HeigePs Deutsche Oeschichte seit 1786. Treitzschke's Deutsche OescL im I9ten Jahrhundert, 5 (to 1848). Seeley's Stein^ 3. Springer's Dahlmann, 2. Ernest of Coburg-Gotha's Memoirs, 4. Headlam's BismareL Busch's Bismarck, 3. Bismarck^s Memoirs, 2. SybeVs BegrUndung d. deutschen Reichs, 7. Marcks' WUhdm I. Friedjung's Kampfum d Vorherr- schaft in Deutschland, 1859—66, 2. Moltke's War o/1870— 1, 2. Poachinger's Friedrich III. Lowe's William IL Russell's German Socialism, Lowell's Oovemments and Parties, 2. CtUtvre, General. The Munich Histories of the Sciences (Protestant Theology (Eng. Trans.^ Catholic Theology, Philosophy, Politics, Historiography, Jurisprudence, Political Economy, Classical Philology, Oriental Philology, Qermanic Philo* logy. Zoology, Geology, Mineralogy, Physics, Astronomy, Geography). Scherer's Deutsche Sprache, and Deutsche Litteraiur. Goedeke's Deutsche Dichiung, 2 — 7. Paulsen's Oelehrter Unterricht, 2. Deutsche Eunst, ed. Janitschek, 5. Periods. Janssen's D, Volk, vols. 1 and 6 — 8 (to 1618). Geigcr's Ilumanumus in Italien u. DetUschland, and Reuchlin, Eampschulte's Erfurter Human- istenkreisy 2. Strauss' Hutten (Eng. Trans.). Edstlin's Luther, 2 (abridged trans.). Bezold's Z>. Reformation, Heath's Anabaptists. Thausing's DUrer, 2. Herford's Literary Rdations with England in IQth Century. Droysen's Oegenreformation. Henke's Ccdixtus, 2. Hossbach's Spener, 2. Geigcr's Berlin, 1688—1840, 2. Mens' Leibnitz (English). Pichler's Leibnitz als Theologe, 2. L^vy-Bruhl's L^AUemagne depuis Leibnitz. Biedermann's Deutschland im IBten Jahrhundert, 4. Hettner's Deutsche Litteraiur, 4. Andler's Origines du Socialisms en Allemagne. Justi's Winckelmann, yoL 1. (G.) Sime's Lessing, 2. Schmidt's Lessing, 2. Meyer's Rffmdsch-deutsche Frage, 3. Nevinson's Herder, Haym's Herder, 2, and Romantische Schule. Mrs Jennings' Rahel. Minor's Schiller, 2. Grimm*s Ooethe, 2. Dilthey's Schleiermacher, Eant, Fichte, Hegel, in Blackwood's Philosophical Classics. Noack's Schdling, 2. Sepp's O&rres. Janssen's Stolberg, 2. Prolss* Junges Deutschland Wolffs Deutsche Litteratur d Oegenwart, Bruhns* Alexander V. Humboldt, 2. (Eng. Trans.) Haym's WUhdm v. Humboldt. Lichtenberger's German Theology, Witte's Tholuck, 2. Bachmann's Hengstenberg, 3. llausrath's Strauss, 2. Acton's German Schools of History (Eng. Hist. Rev. BI6LI0ORAPHT 487 vol. 1). RitBchl's RitscM, 2. Nippold's Bothey 2. Friedrich's JJoUinger, 3. Goyau's L'AUemagne rdigietue, Schulte's AltkcUhoUcitmus. Dawson's Oermany^ 2. Deutwihs UniverdUUen^ ed. Lexis, 2. Austria. General. Wurzbach's Btog, Lexicon Oest Logen^B Austro-Htmgary, Erones' Oett. Oeich, 5, and Orundrisa. YaxDh^rfa JIungary, Maiu*ice's Bohemia, Palack/s Bdhmen, 5—10. Periods. E. Denis' Fin de VInd/pendaTice de BohSme, 2. Gindel/s Rvdolph 11^ 2; Bdhmische Briider, 2; and Oegenreformation in Bdhmen, Hurter's Ferdinand Ily 11. Walewaki's Leopold /, 2. Gaedeke's Oesterreich u, d. Spaniache Erhfclgefrage^ 2. Ameth's Mcuria Thereto^ 7. Bright's Maria Theresoy and Joseph IL Springer's Oest. im I9ten Jahrhundert, 2. Beer's Orientalische PoliHk Oest, Mettemich's If Moires, 8. Mazade's Mettemich. Demelitsch's Mettemich's Auswdrtige PcUtik, 2. Amold-Forster's Deak, Beusf B Memoir$y 2. Lowell's OovernmenU and Parties, voL 2. Matlekovits^ K&nigreich Ungams, 2. Bonrlier's La BohSme Contemporaine, Pypin's Slaviache Literatur, 2. LutzoVs Bohemian Literature, Eeich's Hungarian Literatwre, Leger's Etudes Slaves, 6. Spain. Politics. OeneraL Lafuente's Hist, de Espana, 10 — 29. Armstrong and Hume's Spain, 1479—1788. Duro's Armada Espa'hola, 6. Periods. Poole's Moors in Spain. De Nervo's IsaheUe la Catholique. Baum- garten's Karl F, 3. Winsor's America, vol. 2. Hume's Philip IL Stirling- Maxwell's Cloister Life of Charles V, and Don John, vol. 1. Fomeron's Philippe II, 4. Philippson's ffeinrich IV und Philip III, 3. Canovas* Reinado de Felipe IV, Legrelle's Louis XIV et VEspagne, 4. Pamell's Spanish War of Succession. Coxe's Bourbons in Spain, 5 (1700 — 88). Baudrillart's Philippe V, 3. Armstrong's Elizabeth Famese. Danvila 7 CoUado's Reinado de Carlos III. Hume's Modem Spain. Baumgarten's Oesch. Spaniens seit 1789, 3. Napier's Peninsular War. Hannay's Castelar, Culture. OeneraL Lafiiente's Mist. Ecclenastica de Espana, 6 — 6. Lea's Chapters from the Religious History of Spain. Tic^aiox^s Spamsh Litera^re,^. Fitzmaurice- Kelly's Spanish Literature. Menendez y Pelayo's Heterodoxos, 2 — 3, and Idecu Est^ticas en Espana, 2 — 6. Stirling-Maxwell's Artists of Spain, 4. Colmeiro's Economia Politica en EspaHa, Periods. Mari^jol's VEspagne sous Ferdinand et IsaMle, Heidenheimer's Petrus Martyr. Hefele's Ximenes (£ng. Trans.). Wilkens' Reformation in 488 APPENDIX A Spain, Grahame's St Theresa, 2. Fitzmaurice-Kell/s Cervanteg, Moiel- Fatio's VEtpagne aux 16— 17^mM tiMety 2. Wemer^s Suaarez^ 2. Justi's Vdaaqy^ (Eng. Trana). Yalera's Jmcio$ Literarios, and Estudws Oriticoij 2. Portugal. Moree Stephen's Portugal. Schafer's Portugal, 2—6 (to 1820). Whitewa/s Portugue»e Power in India, Smithes Pombal, 2. Michel's Portugais en FVanee^ Frangait en Portugal. Loiseau's Littirature Portugcdse. Italy. Politics. General Muratori's Annali d Italia (to 1749). Cantu's ItcUiani, 9 — 14. Keumont's Toscana^ 2, and Stadt Rom, voL 3. Ranke's Popes, 3. Broech a Kirchenstaat, 2. Brown's Venice. Bent's Oenoa, Carutti's Storia diplonuUica di Savoia, 1494—1793, 4. Periods. Reumont's Lorenzo de Medici, 2 (Eng. Trans.). Creighton's Papa^, 4 — 6. Pastor's Popes, from voL 4. Pasolini's Catherine S/orza. Biird's Prince of Macchiavelli. Tommasini's Machiavelli. Villari's Macchtavelli^ and Savonarola (Eng. Trans.). Brosch's Julius II. Nitti's Politica di Leone X, Hofler's Adrian VI. De Leva's Carlo V in Italia, 5. Sylvain'a Borrom/e, 3. Buhner's Sixtus the Fifths 2. Reumont's Carafas of Madda- loni. Zwiedineck-Sudenhorst's Venedig's Politik wUhrend d Dreissigjcthriffen Krieges, 2. Tivaroni's Risorgimento, 1735—1870, 9. Theiner's Clement XIV, 2. Colletta's History of Naples, 2. Helfert's Carolina v. Neapd. Ranke's Consalvi (in Biographische Studien). Reumonfs Cesare Balbo. Bolton King's Italy, 1814 — 71, 2. Faldella's Oiovane Italia, 2. Mazade's Cavaur. Maaszini's Works, vols. 1 and 6. O'Clery's Making of Italy, 1856 — 70. Stillman's Crispi. Lowell's Oovemments and Parties, voL 2. Culture. General. Gamett's Italian Literature. Ranke's Popes, 3. Reumont's Tavole di Storia Toscafia, and BeitrUge z. Italienischen Oesch., 6. Cantu's Eretid d Italia, 3. Crowe and Cavalcaselle's Painting in Italy, 5. Ferrari's Scriitori politici d Italia. Periods. Symonds' R&nmssanoe, 7. Burckhardt's The Renaissance, Gregorovius* City of Rome, voL 8. Pater's Renmssance. Villari's Savonarola, and MacchiaveUi (Eng. Trans.). Owen's Italian Sceptics. Rodocanachi's Ren^ de Ferrara. Benrath's Ocfdno (Eng. Trans.). Reumont's Vittoria Colonna. Muntz' Leonardo, 2, and Raphael (Eng. Trans.). Symonds' Michelangelo, 2. Crowe and Cavalcaselle's Titian, 2. Solerti's Tasso, 3. Dejoh's Muret. Waters' Cardan. Fiorentino's Telesio, 2. Bemi's Bruno. Campbell's Sarpi. BIBLIOGRAPHY 489 Vemon Lee's Italy in the Eighteenth Centfu/ry. Flint's Vico, Justi's WiiuJeelmanT^ vol. 2. Vernon Lee's C60 Francis IL (Aimexed to the Kingdom of Italy.) 32 498 APPENDIX B. The Hapsburg Emperors. 1440 Frederick ILL 1493 Maximilian L 1520 Charles y. 1566 Ferdinand L 1564 Maximilian IL 1576 Rudolf IL 1612 Matthiaa 1619 Ferdinand IL 1637 Ferdinand IIL 1658 Leopold L 1705 Joseph L 1711 Charles VL (Miiria Theresa, 1740-dO.) 1742 Charles YIL of Bavaiia. 1745 Francis L 1765 Joseph IL 1790 Leopold IL 1792 Francis II. (Francis as- sumes the title of Emperor of Austriou) 1806 Francis I. 1835 Ferdinand L 1848 Francis Joseph. Kings of Prussia. 1640 FrederickWiUiam, the Great Elector. 1688 Frederick L (receives the royal title, 1701). 1713 Frederick William L 1740 Frederick IL the Great 1786 Frederick William IL 1797 Frederick WiUiam IIL 1840 Frederick William IV. 1861 William I. (Emperor, 1871). 1888 Frederick IIL William IL Kings of Bavaria. 1799 Maximilian L (receives the royal title, 1805). 1825 Ludwig I. 1848 Maximilian IL 1864 Ludwig IL 1886 Otho. (The Regent Leopold). 1763 Frederick Augustus I. (re- ceives the royal title, 1806). 1827 Anthony. Kings of Saxony. 1836 Frederick Augustus IL 1854 John. 1873 Albert Kings of Wiirtemberg. 1806 Frederick L 1816 William L 1864 Charles L 1891 William IL Electors and Kings of Hanover. 1679 £mest Augustus (receives the Electoral title, 1692). 1698 George I. 1727 George II. 1760 George IIL (receives the royal title, 1814). 1820 George IV. 1830 William IV. 1837 Ernest. 1851-66 George V. (Annexed to Prussia). TABLES. 4.99 Stadtholders and Kings of Holland. 1587 Maurice. 1626 Frederick Heniy. 1647 William IL 1660 William IIL 1702 WiUiamlV. 1761 William V. 1796 Batavian Bepublia 1606 Louis Bonaparte. 1810 Amiexed to France. 1814 William I. (receives the royal title). 1840 William II. 1849 William IIL 1890 Wilhelmina. Kings of Beltfinm. 1831 Leopold I. I 1866 Leopold IL Kings of Denmark. 1481 John. 1613 Christian IL (Sweden becomes independent). 1623 Frederick L 1633 Christian IIL 1669 Frederick IL 1688 Christian lY. 1648 Frederick IIL 1670 Christian V. 1699 Frederick lY. 1730 Christian YL 1746 Frederick Y. 1766 Christian YIL 1784 Frederick YL (Regent;. (Norway is joined to Sweden, 1814.) 1889 Christian Yin. 1848 Frederick YIL 1863 Christian IX. Kings of Sweden. 1483 John IL 1697 Charles XIL 1603 Protectors. ri7i8 tl720 Ulrica Eleanora. 1520 Christian II. Frederick I. 1623 Qustavus L, Yasa. 1751 Adolphus Frederick. 1660 Eric XIY. 1771 Qustavus III. 1669 John IIL 1792 Qustavus lY. 1692 Sigismund IIL 1809 Charles XIIL 1604 Charles IX. 1818 Charles XIY. 1611 Qustavus Adolphus. 1844 Oscar I. 1632 Christina. 1869 Charles XY. 1664 Charles X. 1872 Oscar II. 1660 Charles Yd, 32—2 500 APPENDIX B. Kings of Poland. 1492 John Albert 1501 Alexander. 1506 Sigismund I. 1548 Sigismund II. (End of Jagellon Dynasty.) 1673 Henry of Valois. 1575 Stephen Bathori. 1587 Sigismund III. 1632 Wladislaus VII. 1648 John Casimir y. 1669 Michael. 1674 John SobieskL 1697 Frederick Augustus I. Elector of Saxony. (1704-9 Stanislaus LeszczynskL) 1734 Frederick Augustus U. 1764-95 Stanislas Poniatowski. (Final partition of Poland). Tsars of Russia. 1462 Ivan III. 1727 Peter II. 1505 Basil. 1730 Anna. 1533 Ivan the Terrible. 1740 Ivan VI. (deix). 1584 Feodor. 1741 Elizabeth. 1598 Boris Godounoff. 1762 Peter III. 1605 Interregnum. Catharine II. (Accession of House of Romanov.) 1796 Paul 1613 Michael Romanov. 1801 Alexander L 1645 Alexis. 1825 Nicholas I. 1676 Feodor Alexidvitch. 1855 Alexander II. 1682 Peter the Great 1881 Alexander II L 1725 CSatharine I. 1894 Nicholas II. Princes and Kings of the Balkan States* Raumania (Wallachia and Moldavia united, 1861 ; independent, 1878). 1861 Alexander Couza. 1866 Charles of HohenzoUem- Sigmaringen (receives the royal title, 1881). Servia (Independent, 1878). 1868 Milan (receives the royal title, 1881). 1889 Alexander. Bulgaria (Independent, 1878). 1879 Alexander of Battenbei^ 1887 Ferdinand of Cobiu^g. Montenegro (Independent, 1878). 1860 Nicholas. Greece (Independent, 1829). 1832 Otho of Bavaria. 1863 George of Denmark. TABLES. 501 Stdtans of Turkey. 1481 BajazetIL 1512 Seliml. 1520 Solyman I. 1566 Selimll. 1574 Amurathlll. 15d5 Mohammed IIL 1603 Achmet I. 1617 Mustapha L 1618 OthmanIL 1623 AjnuiathlV. 1640 Ibrahim. 1649 Mohammed lY. 1687 Solyman II. 1691 Achmet 11. 1695 Mustapha IL 1703 Achmet III. 1730 Mahmoud I. 1764 OthmanllL 1757 Mustapha IIL 1774 AbdulHamidl. 1789 Selimlll. 1807 Mustapha IV. 1808 Mahmoud IL 1839 Abdul Mejid. 1861 Abdul Aziz. 1876 AmurathV. Abdul Hamid IL Pashas and Khedives of Egypt. 1805 Mehemet All 1848 Abbaa 1854 Said. 1863 Ismail (receives Khedivial title, 1866). 1879 Tewfik. 1892 Abbaa High Coimnissioners of South Afidoa. 1854 Grey. 1861 Wodehouse. 1870 Barkly. 1877 BartleFrere. 1881 Bobinson. 1889 Loch. 1895 Robinson. 1897 Milner. Goyemors-General of Canada. 1867 Monck. 1872 Dufferin. 1878 Lome. 1884 Lansdowne. 1888 Stanley. 1893 Aberdeen. 1898 Minta 502 APPENDIX B. Presidents of the United States. 1789 WaBhington. 1853 Pierce. 1797 John Adams. 1857 Buchanan. 1801 Jefferson. 1861 Lincoln. 1809 Madison. (Johnson, 1865). 1817 Monroe. 1889 Qrant 1825 J. Q. Adams. 1877 Hayes. 1829 Jackson. 1881 Garfield. 1837 Van Burcn. (Arthur, 1881). 1841 Harison. 1885 Cleveland. (Tyler, 1841.) 1889 BLarrison. 1845 Polk. 1893 Cleveland. 1849 Taylor. (Fillmore, 1850.) 1897 Mackinley. India. Moghrd Emperort (to Aurungzebe). 1526 Baber. 1530 Hamaiun. 1556 Akbar. 1605 Jehangir. 1627 Jehan. 1658-1707 Aurungzeba OovemorB'GeMral and Viceroys, Oovemon-QeneroL Vtceroys, 1774 Warren Hastings. 1858 Canning. 1785 Comwallifl. 1862 Elgin. 1793 Shore. 1864 Lawrence. 1798 Wellesley. 1869 Mayo. 1805 Comwallia. 1872 Northbrook. 1807 Minto. 1876 Lytton. 1813 Hastings. 1880 Ripon. 1823 Amherst. 1884 Dufferin. 1828 Bentinck. 1888 Lansdowne. 1836 Auckland. 1893 Elgin. 1842 EUenborough. 1898 Curzon. 1844 Hardinge. 1848 Dalhousie. 1856 Canning. INDEX. NoU. The niimbers in the Index denote Uie paragraph, not the page, — (he apright fignres referring to 'Politics,* the slanting fignres to *Giiltare.* In the case of a King or Minister who is repeatedly mentioned, the years over which his activity extends are given for the sake of brevity, the figures being connected by a hyphen, and printed in blacker type. Nearly half the names mentioned in the text will be found in the Index. Where a man is known in history by more than one title, the most familiar is given, as Bolingbroke instead of St John, and Buckingham instead of Yilliers. Pseudonyms are retained in the case of such writers as George Eliot (Marian Evans) and Ghsorges Sand (Mme Dudevant). The political history of the chief countries of Europe is not indexed, since it can be readily traced by turning over the pages of the text ; but under Germany, Italy, Austria, Turkey, are given the chief Provinces or States of which they have been composed. The less important countries and subjects are indexed in full ; tiie more important only till the time at which the entries become so frequent that no further clue is needed. Thus, Ireland is indexed till the Union, British India till the French War, Prussia till Frederick the Great, Bussia till Peter the Great, Egypt till the Dual Control, Economics till Adam Smith, Politics till Hobbes, History till Banke, English, French and German Literature till Spenser, Comeille, Lessing respectively. In certain cases, selected departments of a subject or of national history are given, as in Philosophy, English, French and German Church History, the United States, etc. The Countries and States in Asia, Africa, America, Australasia are indexed xmder their respective Continents ; the Sciences under Science ; the Arts under Art. Abbot, 726, 752, 836 Ahdelkader, 1725,1792 AbduUHamid, See Turkey. 1878—99 Aberdemyljotdi, 1887,1847, 1922, 1949, 3169 Abraham a Santa Clara. 1198 Aehenwall. 1819 Aconcio. 374 Acton, Lord. 3127 Acton, Sir J. 1809 Actors, 577, 1128, 1135, 1644, 1729, 2106, (19th Century) 2487, 2812, 2954, 3019, 3095, 3158, 3236, 3252, 3390, 3435, 3482, 3636, 3721 Adamt, C. F. 2007 Adams, J. C. 2922, 3661 Adams, John. 1296, 1307, 1346, 1362, 2157, 1393, 1448, 2643 Adams, J. Quincy. 1608, 1670, 1686, 1782 Adams, S. 1287, 1243, 1255, 1288, 1296, 1886, 2362 Aden. 1807 AddingUm (Lord Sidmouth). 1484, 1510, 1580, 1626 Adduon, 1515,1524,1580 Adrian VI,, Pope. 91 AfMca: British Central Africa. 2226 East Africa. 44,882,418, 926, 1078, 1176, (19th Century) 2008, 2096, 2114, 2174, 2181, 2188, 2198, 2204, 2226, 2236, 2246, 2265, 2276, 2806, 2816 South Africa, to the An- nexation of the Trans- vaal. 29, 711, 868, 1841, 1439, (19th Cen- tury) 1608, 1784, 1834, 1878, 1892, 1901, 1930, 1938, 1947, 1975, 1984, 2033, 2069, 2077, 2090, 2114, 2127 West Africa, to the Berlin Conference. 240, 880, 870, 401, 526, 633, 630, 794,823,840,920,1233, 1817, 1824, 1379, (19th Century) 1624, 1654, 1676, 1706, 1808, 1842, 1911, 1947, 2001, 2086, 2106, 2114, 2146, 2174, 2188 Abyssinia, 913, 1826, 2069, 2226, 2297 Algeria, 2, 66, 83, 190, 263, 280, 719, 1411, (19th Century) 1624, 1726, 1792, 1878, 1966 Egypt, to the Dual Con- trol. 82, 796, 1461, 1471, (19th Century) 1488, 1491, 1678, 1664, 1695, 1734, 1746, 1754, 1799, 1806, 1813, 1822, 1947, 2066, 2096, 2106, 2108, 2121 Morocco. 89, 229, 343, 347, 407, 1272, 1834, 1860, 1984, 1992 Tangier, 766, 860 TripoU. 66, 234, 1011, 1772, 1834, 1984 504 INDEX. TunU. 55, 162, 190, 819, 968, 8114, 2164 Church HiMt. 2522,2855, 2971, 3283, 8524 AgatiU, 2802, 2832 Afffijfpa, 15, 201 AiX'la-ChapelU, treaty ot 1158 Akbar. 249,267,^90,472 Akennde. 1750 Alabama, the. 2002, 2065, 2084,2066 Albany, Begent. 68, 78, 80, 95, 102, 114 AJberonL 1009, 1032, 1821 iiZdert, Prince. 1809,1941, 1993, 1999 Albuquerque. 84, 56, 109 Aldus. 10,36,109 Aleander. 143 AlengatL 817, 832, (becomes Duke of Anjoa), 350, 361, 862, 864, 874, 377 Alexander VI., Pope. See 1492—1603 Alexander I., Tsar. See BoBBia, 1801—25 Alexander II., Tsar. See Bossia^ 1865—81 Alexander IIL, Tsar. See BoBsia, 1881—94 AlexU, son of Peter the Great. 1047 Ayien. 2041,2352 iili of Jannina. 1885,1644, 1658, 1662 AUen, Cardinal. 442 Alien, Grant. 3424 Alma Tadema. 3302 Almeida-OarreU. 2830 AUhorp. 1716. 1767 Althueius. 681 Alva. 248, 252, 286, 298, 803, 806, 314, 819, 324, 827, 552 Amboyna, massacre of. 558 America: — The North American Colo- nies: The Northern Colonies, 543, 552, 589, 594, 620, 629, 634, 653, 666, 710, 750, 754, 761. 766, 771, 811, 816, 839, 849, 872, 877, 896, (18ih Centory) 1184, 1220, 1237, 1243, 1249, 1255, 1261, 1277, 1288, 1289, 1296, 1301, 1307 The Southern Colonies, 881. 888, 475, 481, 520, 537, 604, 761, 784, 816, (18th Gentnzy) 1028, 1071. 1077, 1084, 1169, 1178, 1180, 1184, 1190, 1281, 1248, 1268, 1296, 1301,1807 The United States: Finance. 1398,1402.1409, 1623, 1674, 1704, 1747, 1755, 1789, 1814, 1964, 2007, 2017, 2135. 2144, 2187, 2234, 2262, 2275, 2295 The Slavery Question. 1814, 1361, 1378, 1402, 1422, 1548, 1587, 1653, 1733, 1782, 1789, 1855, 1866, 1910, 3040, 1946. 1866—65 States BighU. 1467, 1474, 1506, 1704, 1724, 1747, 1989, 1999 American Church: Baptists. 924, 990 Congregationalists. 901, 915, 1007, 1077, 1145, 1348 Catholics. 740,1034,2177, 2203, 2416, 2561, 2670, 3036, 3180, 3600, 3680, 3752 Episcopalians. 1537,1680, 1700, 2133, 2321, 2446, 3055, 3446, 3552 Mormons. 2617, 2891, 2950, 3536 Presbyterians. 1306,1479, 2164, 2431, 2795, 3663 Quakers. 1092, 2633 Unitarians. 1694, 1840, 2547, 2854, 3401, 3493 Minor SecU. 929, 1723, 1724, 1736, 1987, 2026, 2113, 2215, 2253, (19th Centnry) 2310, 2389, 2701, 2905, 2969, 3268, 3401, 3433, 3493 American Literature to Washington Irying. 765, 847, 878, 1042, 1077, 1145, 1454, 1467, 1593, 1618, 2288, 2421 Caftada and Newfoundland. 23, 37, 187, 195, 376, 571, (17th Oentuiy) 468, 484, 735, 516, 548, 589, 599, 669, 787, 801, 1232, 1264, 839, 900, (18th Century) 990, 999, 1136, 1141, 1156, 1205, 1210, 1215, 1231, 1296, 1307, 1849. 1893, 1409, (19th Century) 1587, 1596, 1603. 1789, 1797, 2042, 2051, 2065, 2076, 2194, 2202, 2234, 3641, 3694, 2295,2298 America (Central). 97, 88, 932, 1467, (19th Cen- tnry) 1653, 1664, 1685, 1797, 1806, 1866, 1891, 1937, 1861—7, 2120, 2144, 2173, 2295 America (South). 29, 32, 27, 48, 65, 78, 88, 129, 145, 300, 245, 430, (17th Centuiy) 490, 527, 564, 579, 629, 947, 671, 930, (18th Centnry) 932, 1082, 1164, 1467. (19th Cent.) 1801—86, 1682, 1724, 1814, 1823, 2023, 2029, 2144, 2225, 2243, 2285, 2304, 2325 Ames. 879 AmieL 3510 Amort. 1749,1816 Ampere. 2550 Amyot. 386 Amyraut. 883, 910, 1163 Anabaptism. 148,154,180, 225, 233, 241, and see £ng. Ch. ilnarcAiffn, theory of. 2910, 3293, 3546, 3566 Andersen, Hans. 2764 Andrassy. 2112 Andri, Major. 1327 Andrea del Sarto. 75 Andreas, of Tubingen. 479, 499, 508, 526 Andrie. 3732 Andrewes. 632, 698, 738, 752, 858, 1021 Andrews. 3196 Andros. 849, 872, 877 Angelas, Silesius. 1101 iifipitf. Earl of. 68,95,181, 198 Anjou, Duke of. 310, 318, 320, 325, 328, becomes Henry HI. See France. 1674—89 Anne Boleyn. 150, 163 Anne of CUves. 184 Anne, Queen. 869, 886, 1463, and see England. 1702—14 Anson. 1112, 1722 Anthropology. 2477, 2625, 2710, 2807, 9960, 3064^ INDEX. 505 3110, 3184, 3232, 3246, 3262, 3368, 3384, 3413, 3530, 3548, 3565, 3629, 3645, 3703, 3726 Antuemitism. 3445, 2282, and Bee Jews, and Dz^- fnB. AntmieUi. 19SS, 1906, 3416 Aquaviva. 672, 747 Arabi, 2174 Arago, politician. 1882 jiropo, Boientist. 2450,2597 Aranda. 1252, 1960, 1274, 1304 Arbuthnot. 1524 Arch, Jofleph. 3355 AreHno, 104 Argyll, 5ih Eail. 261 ArgyU, 8tn EarL 648, 700, 746 iir^//, 9ih EarL 853 Argyll, 2nd Duke. 1006, 1013 ArgyU, 8th Duke. 2157 Ariotto. 76, 222 ArkwrighU 1984 Arlingum. 776, 781, 786 Armada, the. 397 Arvtinianitm. 594, 685, 724, 729, 789, 1322 AmavXd, Ang^ique. 719, 1132 ArtumLd, kaXom^, 935,961, 976, 1011, 1085, 1100, 1148, 1267, 1279, 1393 Amdt,^, 2379, 2472, lB»i Amdt, J. 691 Amim, Count. 2100 Amim, poet. 2379 Arnold, Benedict. 1327 Arnold, Bdwia. 3448 Arnold, Ootttned. 1432 Arnold, Matthew. 2972, 3236, 3306, 3343, 3596 Amold,T. 2679,2716,2819, 2885 Art: AettheHci. 1525, 1577, 1803, 1843, 1855, 1886, 1954, 2002, 2194, 2257, (19th Oentuiy) 2381, 2676, 2897, 3424, 3499 Archaeology, 614, 620, 1237, 1688, 1789, 1933, (19th Century) 2465, 2847, 2866, 2924, 2979, 2996, 3010, 3060, 3081, 3120, 3257, 3364, 3470, 3488, 3591 Architecture, 31,61,107, 182, 211, 281, 304, 340, 413, 419, 488, (17th Centuiy) 708, 806, 863, 1168, 1245, 1297, 1334, (18th Century) 1475, 1483, 1516, 1843, 1898, 1922, (19th Century) 2691, 2846, 2923, 3177, 3194, 3256, 3469 Muiie: Engliih. 268,1245,2474, 2897, 8273, 3526, 3540, 3576, 8642, 3655, 8725 FreneK 1203,1669,2324, 2394, 2691, 2941, 3147, 3256, 3393, 3424, 3499 German, 856,1509,1601, 1638, 1740, 1914, 2146, 2156, 2207, 2279, (19th Century) 2347, 2500, 2551, 2598, 2652, 2752, 2784, 2941, 3009, 3241, 3273, 3288, 3363, 3378, 3407, 3687 Italian. 426, 662, 1278, 2279, 2509, 2676, 2707, 2767, 3025, 3288, 3469 Other Countriee, 2676, 2784, 2978, 3526, 3669 Pefformert, 1601, 2369, 2590, 2662, 2726, 2814, 2846, 2909, 3105, 3137, 3177, 3225, 3407, 3576 TheoritU, 2194, 2923, 3025, 3162, 3320, 3424 Imtrument Makers, 1422, 2085, 3059 Painting : DuUh and Flemieh. 202, 352, 717, 750, 799, 887, 893, 981, 1044, 1059, 2833, 3194 EnglUh. 488,962,1278, 1759, 1827, 1903, 1963, 1991, 2156, 2279, (19th Centuiy) 2347, 2394, 2490, 2537, 2551, 2833, 2897, 2978, 3105, 3119, 3137, 3212, 3241, 3256, 3302, 3350, 3407, 3439, 3513, 3710, 3725, 3741 French, 207, 856, 952, 1001, 1147, 1562, 1718, 1903, 2126, (19th Cen- tury) 2394, 2551, 2598, 2707, 2752, 3095, 3147, 8117, 3212, 3302, 3334, 3407, 3453, 3622 German. 21, 51, 61, 96, 174, 1991, 2257, (19th Centuiy) 2436, 2624, 2637, 2814, 2957, 3105, 3119, 3302, 3469, 3487, 3560, 3605 Italian, 31, 47, 51, 66, 72, 75, 77, 90, 100, 107, 131, 139, 159, 220, 392, 407, 561, 675, 1914 Spanuh, 825,1236,2270, 3320 Drawing, 2076, 2726, 2803, 3025, 3045, 3147, 3225, 3669, 3687 Engraving, 1811, 2126, 2219, 2369 China. 304, 1509, 1811, 1827, 1978 Sculpture. 17,21,43,51, 107, 228, 298, 304, 392, 433, 600, 776, 1875, 2099, 2243, 2279, (19th Century) 2451, 2525, 2691, 2707, 2738, 3137, 3302, 3540, 3741, 3758 * ArUmue Ward.' 3239 Ateham. 459 A/ghaniitan. 125, 1072, 1111, 1115, 1119, 1152, 1157, 1200, (19th Cen- tury) 1788, 1790, 1798, 1807, 1816, 1825, 1833, 2138, 2147, 2164, 2195 Arabia. 82, 124, 1974 Armenia. 2131, 2277, 2288, 2294 Ceylon. 84, 736, 1450 China. 254,417,443,521, 672, 722, 844, 878, 1206, 1423, (19th Century) 1625, 1790, 1807, 1816, 1825, 1833, 1912, 1958, 1966, 1991, 2009, 2018, 2043, 2097, 2128, 2277, 2288, 2306, 2817 French in China, 1974, 2009, 2018, 2107, 2182, 2189, 2195, 2205, 2264 ZHaeh in Asia. 431, 459, 500, 532, 558, 622, 647, 755, 844, (18th Century) 1206, 1679, 1625, 1677, 2097 Georgia. 154,1364,1488 India: East India Company till the French war of 1746. 412, 450, 505, 617; 553, 658, 641, 766, 851, 867, 886, 886, 977 French in India, See Asia. Mahrattas. 755,976,1116, 506 INDEX. 1200, 1222, 1299, 1825, I 1498, 1509, 1518, 1689 Moghult. 125, 188, 267, 472, 476, 781, 765, 976, 1115, 1222, 1248, 1965 TheSikhM, i^J, 476, 1584, 1672 Bunna. 1677,1931,2195 Japan. 225, 299, 869, 417, 448. 600, 1940, 1974, 2018, 2067, 2128, 2227, 2277, 2288 Korea. 417, 448, 2277, 2288,2806 Persia. 24, 71, 154, 898, 1072, 1096, 1101, 1440, (19th Centmy) 1488, 1595, 1604, 1701, 1790, 3004, 3037, 1968, 1965 Portuguese in Asia. 29, 84, 48, 56, 84, 106, 211, 225, 254, (17th Gentuiy) 459, 517, 558, 647, 708, 736, 755, 1116 Russia in Siberia. 860, 722, 878, 976, 985, 1948, 1974, 2205 jRuMta in Transcaspia. 1024, 1804, 1965, 2082, 2060, 2097, 2116, 2165, 2189, 2195, 2288 Siam. 857, 2264, 2297 8ingapore,ete. 1871,1646, 1677 Syria. 79. 1471, 1784, 1818, 1991 Tibet. 888, 844 Asiatic Church. 181, 977, 338, 390, 487, 645, 617, 650, (17th Century) 760, 821, 998, 1051, 1067, 1464, 1600, 1119, 1714, (19th CSentury) 2332, 2377, 2390, 2470, 2486, 2671, 2685, 2796, 2951, 3004, 3037, 1991, 3157, 3174, 3553, 3736 Assemanni, 1574 Astruc, 1823 AUerbury, 1431, 1445, 986, 1045 Auber. 2691 Augereau. 1453 Augier. 3091 Augsburg, ConfesBion of. 200 Augsburg, League of. 860, 864,876 Aurungtebe. 781, 755, 976 Austen, J. 2447, 2507, 2531 AusterliU, battle of. 1520 Austin, J. 2728 Amtralaaia : N.S.Wales. 1887,1671, 1882, 1920, 2287 New Zealand. 1791,1815, 1824, 1856, 1929, 1990, 2118, 2244, 3675, 3691, 8748 Queensland. 1988, 2180, 2218 S. Australia. 1764,1783, 1832, 1918 Tasmania. 973, 1517, 1686, 1918, 2296 Victoria. 1771,1918,5575 W. Australia. 666, 1715. 2031,2235 General 703,1972,1796, 1920, 1954, 2156, 2180, 2218, 2235, 2244, 2263, 2828 AviMa: ■ Austrian Ch. 1198,1487, 2094, 3087, 3282, 3375, 2112, 2132 Bohemia. 122, 220, 282, 488, 487, 498, 524, 529, 585, 540, 619, 1121, 1882, 1863, (19th Gen- txay) 1551, 1780, 1887, 1996, 2055, 2082, 2281, 2301, 2820 Bohemian Ch. 34, 130, 150, 233, 417, 444, 492, 672, 487, 540, 1025, 1219, 1599, 1929 Hungary. 70, 77, 122, 162, 178, 186, 206, 237, 282, 816, 842, 447, (17th Century) 451, 467, 508, 550, 601, 675, 681, 780, 744, 766, 774, 792, 810. 828, 835, 856, 861, 866, 884, 890, 928, (18th Century) 951, 976, 993, 1019, 1027, 1050, 1120, 1246, 1284, 1332, 1359, 1398, (19th Century) 1681, 1748, 1769, 1821, 1840, 1876, 1886, 1898, 1997, 2027, 2049, 2094, 2110, 2802 Hungarian Ch. 218, 370, 699, 3679 Hungarian Lit. 2781, 2919, 2938 Avenarius. 3408 Avenbrugger. 1902 Avogadro. 2450 Aytoun. 2972 Baader. 2591 Ba5, the. 8004 Baber. 125 Bahington. 889 Bahoeuf. 1443 Bach. 1601,1638,1806 Bacon. 593, 640, 452, 096, 506, 798, 800, 544, 815, 850,854 Baer. 2651 Bagehot. 3277, 3366, 3367, 3474 BaiUU,J. 2285 Bain. 3096 Bakunin. 3233,3293,3355 Balboa. 97 Balfe. 2897 Balfour, A. J. 3455, 8207, 3699, 3751 Balfour, ¥. 3468 BaUanche. 2528 Balm£s. 2875 Baltimore, Lord. 604 Balzac, H. 2748,3017 Balzac, Jean. 839 Bampton Leeturea. 9081 Bancroft, Biahop. 593,616, 683 Bancroft, Oeorge. 2754 Bancroft, Squire. 3252 JBon^orian GontroTersy. 1559 PanJb (National). 565,480, 488, 901, 1409, 1478 Barbarossa. 88, 154, 163, 179 Barclay, Quaker. 1247 Bar^re. 1420,1426 Bameveldt. 879, 421, 586 Baronius. 588, 710 Barris. 3707 BarrU. 3571 Barrot, Odilon. 1870 Barrow, Brownist. 542, 616 Barrow, Isaac. 1257 Barry. 2846 Bartolommeo, Fra. 61 Basedow. 2032 Bastiat. 2926 Bathory. 816, 828 Baudelaire. 3117 Baumgarten, writer on aes- thetics. 1803 Baur. 2933, 2949, 3169 Baxter. 1004, 1013, 1041, 1096, 1130, 1373, 1403 Bayard. 115 BayU. 1309, 1323, 1410, 1455,1484 Bazaine. 2071, 2092 INDEX. 607 Beardsley, A. 3687 Beatan, Arohbishop. 68,114 Beatouj Cardinal. 181, 198, 218 3eauhamaUf Eagene. 1522, 1590, 1601 BeauharjiaU^ILoTieTise, 1580 Beauhamaiif Josephine. 1658 Beaumarehais. 1866, 1291, 2039, 1310. B123, 2307 Beaumont. 713 Beeearia, 1936 Beekford, author. 2122 Beda, 197,216,232 Bedford, 4th Dvike of. 1229, 1244 Beeeher, Ward. 2950, 3584 Beethoven. 2347, 2656 Behn,UT%. 1152,1192 Beit. 2226 Belgium, see Netherlands Belhaven. 970 Bell,I>i. 2282 £«U, SirG. 2381,2450 Bellamy. 3595 BeUarmine. 509, 610, 698, 730, 808 BeUay, Du. 319 BelUitU. 1120, 1180, 1197 BeUere, 1407 BeUim, composer. 2707 BeUini, Oioyanni. 51, 66,117 Bembo. 56, 98, 311 Benedetti. 2071 Benedict XIV., FoTpe. 1713, 1727, 1728, 1824, 1839, 1863 Benedietinei of St Manr. 787, and see liabillon and MontfanQOn Bengel. 1735, 1821 Beimett, Stemdale. 3273 Benson, Archbishop. 3553, 3614, 3677 Bentham. 2048,2087,2147, 2158, 2184, 2210, 2336, 2591, 2612, 2730 Bentinek, Earl of Portland. 910, 935 Bentinek, Lord G. 1851 Bentley. 1364, 1370, 1415, 1431, 1507, 1519, 1529, 1535, 1586, 1741 Biranger. 2497, 1620, 3126 Berkeley. 1503,1510,1637, 1084, 1656, 1675, 1682, 1752, 1830 BerUoz. 2941 Bemadotte. 1470, 1553, 1582, 1589, 1687 Bernard, Claude. 3058,3443 Bernard of Weimar. 592, 609, 613, 633, 638 Bemert, Lord. 158, 196 Bernhardt, Sarah. 3482 Bernini. 776, 1282 BemU. 1187,1197,1202 Berwmim, Daniel. 1702, 1770 Bemouilli, James. 1311 BemtmiUi, John. 1311,1563 Berry, Due de. 1648 Berryer. 2606 Berthier. 1462 Bertrand, J. 3224 BirulU. 739, 874 Bmcncfc, Duke of. 910,967, 972, 1009, 1032 Berzelius. 2437 Betant, Walter. 3495 Beuel. 2538,2609,2813 Bethlen Gabor. 508, 535, 550, 874 Betterton. 1135 Bemstorff. 1358 Beust. 1907, 2035, 2038, 2049, 2082, 3567 Bewick. 2126, 2280 Beveridge. 1130,1346,1500 Beza. 344, 396, 418, 429, 542, 544, 697 Bianchi. 1757 Blue: Texts. 99, 112, 301, 544, 906, 1003, 1047, 1105. 1489, 2037, 2045, 2709, 2997, 3152, 3478 Translations. 143, 168, 224, 230, 262, 387, 442, 444, 542, 610, 738, 3478 O.T. Criticism. 779,1210, 1259, 1322, 1463, 1822, 1823, 2025, 2104, 2111, 2308, 2376, 2759, 3053, 3187, 3250, 3308, 3441, 3460, 8580, 3633 N. T. Criticism. 19, 55, 88, 89, 147, 779, 819, 959, 1463, 1735, 1808, 1894, 2000, 2025, 2319, 2388, 2429, 2560, 2759, 2933, 3235, 3534, 3563, 3592, 3613, 3616, 3649 Miscellaneous. 254, 1171, 1692, 1715 Biehat. 2325,2340 Bielinski. 2749 Bilderdyck. 2144 Bingham. 1497 Biot. 2845 Biron of Courland. 1106 f Biron, Marshal. 457 Bismarck. 1884, 1916, 1862—90, 2292, 3749 Bizet. 3393 Bjbmson. 3135,3511,218^, 3603 Black. 1833, 1897, 2307 Blackbume. 1765, 1948, 1999 Blackstone. 1947,2048,2091 Blackwood. 2357, 2523 Blaine. 2120, 2187, 3676 Blair. 2054,2115 Blake, Admiral, 705, 712, 716, 719, 724, 727 Blake, William. 2156,2179, 2656 Blanc, Louia 2868, 1837, 1882 Blanco, White. 2757 Blavatshf, 3394 Blenheim, battle of. 955 Blessington, Lady. 2680 Bloeh. 3730 Bltmdel. 864,910 Blucher. 1589, 1599, 1606, 2557 Bodelschwingh. 3293, 3505 Bodin. 420, 434, 448, 335, 512, 633, 639 Bodley, J. 3746 Bodley, Sir Thomas. 640 Bodmer. 1660 Bdckh. 2452, 2527, 2611, 3280 B&cklin. 3105 Boehm. 3302 Bdhrne. 745, 835 Bdhmer, historian. 2712 Bdhmer, legist. 1544 Boerhave. 1496,1662,1705 BlSvne. 1767 BohmrBawerk. 3643 Bohn*§ Libraries, 2952 Boiardo. 16 Boileau. 1178, 1235, 1341, 1520 BoisguiUebert. 1416 Bolinghroke. 958, 977, 998, 1006, 1539, 1048, 1058, 1085, 1093, 1703, 1814, 1831 BoHvar. 1682, 1645, 1674, 1685, 1724 Bolland. 977 Bonaparte, Jerome. 1537 „ Joseph, 1462, 1527, 1545, 1588 Bonaparte, Louis, 1530, 1559 Bonghi. 3382,3704 Bonner. 307, 356, 374 *» /»cm^. 17^/f. VjU, lUf0 Booth, G^aoegaL 3ZVi, $fi30 Boff, 2rAt,rm,Xk¥> B*frg/%^ C^aar, 14, 2(, tl; 1A,C7 B44, IMl, 1S48^ 1300, 1394. 1404, 2206, 2268, 2272, 1780 3119, S710 BmmH,Bisibap. 1271,1346, 1366, 1392, 1445, 1554, 1614 Btanwf,F. 2063,2106 Bmnumf. 2786 Bmiu,3. 36U BMms,JL 2143,2274 Burr, Aaron. 1482, 1540 BmtaH,&i^ 3038,3467 B«rfoi^ Bobert 803 BuOfg. 956 BuMch, 3746 Busenbamn. 1002 Busty-Babutin. 1167 Bute. 1218,1224.1229 BiUl^, Bishop. 1623,1685, 1821 Butler, S. 1162 BuU. 2099 Buxton, Fowell. 2742 Byng, George. 978^ 1025 Byng, John. 1193 Bynkershoek. 1689, 1698, 1747 Byrom. 1807 Byron. 2417, 2460, 2507, 2648, 1675 CdbanU. 1761,2170 Cabet. 2868,2984 Cabot, John. 23 Cabot, Sebastian. 346 Cagliostro. 2137 Caird,J. 3471 Caimes. 3307 Cairns, hold. 2044,2091 Cajetan. 126, 205 Colas. 1909 Calderon. 904, 1289 Calendar, the Gregorian, 648, 1166 Calhoun. 1704, 1747, 1848 Cdlixtus. 997, 1086, 1098 Calonne. 1850, 1368, 1374 INDEX. 509 Calov, 819,997,1086,1320 CalverUy. 3347 Calvin. 216, 824, 239, B44, 267, 264, 265, 344, 381, 418, 421, 494 Camden, Lord. 1229 Camden, historian. 677 Cameron, theologian. 787 Cameroniam, 1266 Camoem, 472, 633 Campanella. 800, 813, 826, 948, 954 Campbell, Colin. 1965 Campbell, M^Leod. 2559, 2700, 3100 CampbeU,T. 2298,2417 Campbell- Bannerman, 2818 Campeggio. 180, 184 (kmpion. 855, 861 Campomanes. 1274 Canning, G. 2276, 1585, 1538, 1549, 1685, 1660, 1670, 1674, 1694 Canning, Stratford. 1588, 1684, 1822, 3477 Canova, 2156, 2596 Canovae, 2300 Canrobert, 1945 CapodiitrioM. 1658, 1665, 1702, 1732 Caprivi, 2280, 2270 Capueint. 188 Caracci. 561 Caraffa, See Paul lY. Caravaggio, 561, 724 Carbonan. 1469,1651,1968 Cardan. 297, 354, 506 Cardueei, 3237, 3419 CardwelL 2052 Carey, economist. 3149 Carleton, 2687 CarUU,^. 1640 CarlUU, the. See Spain. 1829—76 CarlyU. 2659, 2734, 2806, 2892, 2925, 3019, 3141, 3492 Carmelitet, 405 Carmen Sylva, 3485 Carnarvon, Lord. 2044,2181 Carnegie, A. 3564 Camo^ Director. 2255,1433, 1458, 2346, 1511, 2422, 2609 Camot, President. 2208, 2269 Caroline, Qaeen, 1551,110/2 Carpenter, Mary. 3125 Carr, Earl of Somerset. 501, 514 Carranza. 171, 296, 384 Carrel, 2688 Cartteng, 2257 Carte, Elizabeth. 1800 Carteret. 1089, 1051, 1124, 1128, 1182, 1142, 1927 Cartwright, T. 453, 459, 467, 478, 485, 598, 682 Cartwright, Major. 2034, 130%, 2088 Caeaubon. 625, 664, 764, 801 Caiimir-Pirier, Premier. 1717 Caeimir-Pirier, President. 2269 Castelar, 1943, 2098, 2102, 2259, 3765 CaateUio. 282, 344 Caitiglume, 190 Caetlereagh. 1549, 1580, 1583, 1599, 1660 Catherine of Arragon. 28, 58, 126, 130. 134, 139, 150 Catherine of BnugtLBZtk. 755, 766 I Cat/tmn^I.ofBassia. 1057 Catherine II. See Bassia. 1762—96, and 1950, 2159 Catinat. 876, 883, 889, 898 Cavaignae. 1882, 1915 Cavendish. 1953, 2289 Cavendish, Lord F. 2167 Cavaur. 1873, 1926, 1950, 1968, 1978, 1986, 1994 Cayley. 2922 Cecil, Lord Burleigh. See England. 1508—98, and 395, 560 Cecil, Bobert. 460, 501 Cellini. 207, 298, 466 CelUs. 24, 58 Cervantes. 538, 695, 768, 778 Chadwiek. 2821 * Challenger,' the. 3349 Chalmers. 2481,2745,2887, 2965 Chamberlain, J. 3321,21^, 2197, 2206, 2246, 2289, 2305 Chambers. 1630 Chambord. 1648,2079,2092, 2176 Chamisso. 2488 Champlain. 468, 484, 516, 921 Champollion. 2579 Channing. 2547,2844,2885 Chantal, Mme. 719, 727 Chantrey, 2525 I Chapelain. 824, 918, 1094 Charcot. 3362 Charles I. See England and English Gboroh. 1626—49 Charlee II. 692, 696, 700, and see England and Eng- lish Ghoroh. 1660—86 Charles V., Emperor. 1816 —68 Charles VI., Emperor. See Austria. 17U— 40 Charles VIIL, of France. See 1492—8 Charles IX., of France. See France. 1660—74 Charles X., of FrKaoe. 1889, 1406, 161 1 , and see France. 1824—80 Charles II., of Spain. See Spain. 1665—1700 Charles III., of Spain. See Spain. 1769—88 Charles IV., of Spain. See Spain. 1788—1806 Charles X., of Sweden. See Sweden. 1664—60 Charles XII., of Hweden. See 1697—1718 Charles, Archdnke, opponent of Napoleon. 1470, 1551 Charles of Lorraine, General of Maria Theresa. 1188, 1184, 1189, 1198 Charles Albert. See Italy. 1881—49 Charles Augtutu8,ot'Weima,r. 2009 Charles Frederick, of Baden. 1280, 2118 Charlotte, Princess. 1626 Charron. 667 ChartisU. 1786,1800,1827, 1880 Chateaubriand. 2277,2323, 2331, 2367, 2418, 2492, 2985, 2992 ChatterUm. 1941, 1988 Cheke. 219 ChSnier, Andi^. 2240,2250 Chesterfield. 1086, 1160, 1841, 2023, 2028 Chevrettse, Mme de. 668 Cheyne. 3460 ChiUingworth. 891,928,987 ChitraX. 2288 ChoUeul. 1202, 1208, 1209, 1210, 1217, 1274. 2139 Chopin. 2676, 3000 Church, Dean. 3633 Churchill, Bandolph. 2148, 2166, 2197, 3704 Christian Science. 3401 510 INDEX. ChriiHna, of Sweden. 603, 670, 10»8, 716, 717, 1S54 Cinq-Mart. 656 Clairaut. 1745, 1817 Clapham Sect. »387 Ctor«fidon, Hyde, Lord. 891 ^ 648, 1010, 1660—7, 1240, 1469 Clarendon, Yilliera, Lord. 1922, 2065 Clarke. 1463, 1521, 1551, 1566, 1641 Clarkton. 2150, 2160, 2173 Claverhauu. 825, 874 Claude, theologiaa* 1158, 1248 1259 Clausitu. 3088, 3118, 3224 Clay. 1603, 1686, 1747, 1910, 3051 Clement VIL, Pope. See 1623—84 Clement VIIL, Pope. 426, 441, 589, 650, 659, 448 Clement XIIL, Pope. 1919, 1928, 1930, 1939, 1940, 1976 Clement XIV., Pope. 1976, 2016 Cleveland. 2187,2253,2262, 2275, 2285 Clifford. 781, 785, 796, 799 Clinton, Fynes. 2613 Clive. 1168, 1174, 1200, 1206, 1248, 1259, 1296 ClooU. 2231, 1426 Clough, Miss. 3337 Cobbett. 2217, 2333, 2507, 2773 Cobden. 2770, 1793, 1959, 1976, 1985, 2010, 3248, 3260 Cobet. 3079 Coceejut. 1024, 1205 CodringUm. 1694 Cohom. 1319, 894, 907 Coke, Edward. 663, 453, 492, 518, 649, 681, 865, 914 Colbert. 748, 764, 1179, 1180, 1228, 1305 CoUbrooke. 2371, 2592 Colento. 3187 Colendge, Lord. 2091 Coleridge. 2254,2285,2417, 2447, 2507, 2616, 2667 CoUt. 19, 49, 79, 87 Coligny. 245,260,265,274, 276, 278, 301, 306, 310, 818 Collier, Jeremy. 1346,1421, 1566 Collins, Anthony. 1529, 1551, 1610 Colline, poet. 1767 Cotonna, Yittoxia. 188,217, 311 Columbus. 3, 8, 29, 64 Comeniui. 888, 997, 1025, 1104, 1219 Commune, the. 2079 Comte,A. 2640,2692,3121 ComU, C. 2594 Cook, 1972, 2013, 2061 Cooper, Fennimore. 2575 CooU. 1216, 1222, 1340 C(mcor of. 1051, 1124, 1128, 1132, 1181, 1184, 1193 New Guinea. 2180, 2196, 2203 Neumian, F. 2986 Newman, J. H. See Eng. Ch. 1BS$'-'A6, 3018, 3078, 3219, 3298, 3311, 3631 Newton, Isaac. 1154, 1179, 1311, 1335, 1377, 910, 1468, 1633 Ney. 1689, 1606 Nicholas, Henry. 241, 822 Nicholas I. See Bossia. 1826—66 Nicholas II, See Bnsaia. 1894—9 Nieolai. 1884, 1943, 2100, 2286 NicoU. 1011, 1148, 1158, 1221, 1267 Nicon. 1058 Niebuhr, Carsten. 1916 Niehuhr, BarthholcL 2454, 2492, 2514, 2533, 2572, 2715 NUtxsehe. 3561,3606 NiUson. 3225 Nimwegen, treaty of. 822 Ninon de rEnolos. 1102 Nitzsch, theologian. 2669 Nitzsch, philologist. 2693 Noailles. 1381,1402,1501, 1530 Nordau, Max. 3699, 3720 Nordenskiold. 3324, 3396 Notfolk, 3rd Duke. 163, 184, 191, 212, 217 Norfolk, 4th Duke. 304, 314, 317 NorrU, 1361,1369 North, Christopher. 2523 North, Dndley. 1371 North, Lord. See England. 1770—83 North, translator of Pla- tarch. 521 Northcote, Stafford. 2098, 2148 Nottingham, Earl of. 873, 939, 958, 991 Norway, 311, 1592, 1602. 2186, 2240, 2250 Norwegian Lit, 1376,2448, 2674, 2724, 3007, 3135, 3253, 3300, 3318, 3422, 3451, 3484, 3511, 3573, 3603, 3756 Numismatics. 585, 1161, 2221, 2372, 3582 OaUs, TituB. 821 Oherlin. 1959 (ySrien, Smith. 1881 Ochino, 217,276,316,344 O'ConnelL 1667,1698,1707, 1758, 1765. 1810, 1828, 1836, 1844, 2965 O'Connor, Fergus. 1800, 1835,1880 Oecolampadius. 130, 143, 166, 195, 226 Oersted, 2550 Oglethorpe, 1084 OhlensehlSger, 2368 Ohm, 2638 Oken. 2423, 2589 Oliphant, Laurence. 3266 Olivarez. 651,644 OUivier. 2071 Omdurman, battle ofl 2316 Opits, 831 Oratory, The. 366, 739, 3033 Orehardson. 3513 Orleans, Gaston of. 571, 591,600 Orleans, £galit^. 1389 Orleans,Begent, See France. 1714—23 Ormerod, Miss. S4Ji3 Ortiumd, 1st Duke. 662,683 Ormond, 2nd Duke. 995, 1012 Ossian. 1895 Otis, 1220 Otway, 1293 Oudenarde, battle of. 979 Outram. 1965 OveraU, 632, 738 Overheek, 2436 Overhury, 761, 514 Owen, J. 1108, 1305 Owen, Biohard. 3255, 3525, 3661 Owen, Bobert. 2511, 2603, 2742, 3142 Oxenstiem. 499, 603, 609, 625, 1083 PaderewsH, 3576 Paganini, 2369 Pagi, 1352 Paine, Tom. 2048, 2208, 1412, 2237 Palacky. 1780, 2786, 1887 Palestrina. 426, 627 INDEX. 523 Paley. 2137,2187,2237,2330 Palgrave, Gifford. 3202 Palissy. 304, 631, 602 PaUadio. 281,468 Palmerttan, 1680, 1697, 1716, 1718, 1767, 1818, 1862, 1903, 1909, 1914, 1922, and see England. 1866--66 Paludan-MUlUr, 2861 Paoli. 1188, 1262, 1269, 1426 Paraceltut, 183, 274 Paraew. 684, 767, 549 Pari, 297 Porit, AbM. 1649 ParU, Gomte de. 2092, 2221, 3692 Parker, M. 380, 429, 442, 471, 497 Parker, Theodore. 2844^ 2864 Parke*, Sir Harry. 1991 Parkes, Sir Henry. 2236 Pamell. 2123, 2149, 2167, 2167, 2216, 2220, 2229, 3647 Parry, H. 3666 Parsons. 366, 861 Pascal. 980, 1074, 1079, 1090, 1109, 1160, 1164, 1208 Pasquier, 422, 772 Passaglia. 8070, 3172 Pasteur. 3118, 3178, 3196, 3240, 3486, 3641, 3690, 3704 Pater. 3360, 3637 Patin, Guy. 960 Patmore. 3072 Patteson. 3173 Patti. 3177 Pattifon, Mark. 3166,3274 PauinL,Vo^ See 163^— 4S Paul IV., Pope. 138, 162, 236, 276, 248, 368, 371, 376, 261 Paul v., Pope. 474, 706 Paulus. 2429 Pavia, battle of. 117 Peacock. 2607, 2702 Pearson, C. 3672 Pearson,!. 1113,1130,1329 Peel, Lord. 3764 Peel, B. 1580, 1640, 1697, 1706, 1736, 1767, 1766, 1800, and see England. IMl— 6, 3017 Pelham, Henry. 1061, and see England. 1744 — 64 PeUieo. 2723 Petm, W. 1217, 839, 1386, 1671 Penry, 687, 616 Pepe. 1651, 1667 Pepys. 1123,1462,2618 Perceval. 1649, 1680 Percy, Bishop. 1941 Perez. 346, 378, 399 Perrault. 1341,1367 Perrone. 2760, 3070 Perthes. 2149, 2433 Peru. 2642 Perugino. 61 Pestalozzi. 2101 Petavius. 867, 989, 1062 Peterborough, Lord. 961 Peterloo massacre. 1640 Peters, Hugh. 1004, 1073 Petrie, Flinders. 3488 Petrucci. 1292, 1317 Petty. 1000, 1082, 1149, 1298 Philip, Captain. 1387 Philip, of Hesse. See Ger- many and German Gh. 1636—62 Philip II., of Spain. See 1664—98 Philip III. See Spain. 1698—1681 Philip IV. See Spain. 1681—66 Philip V. See Spain. 1700 PhiUppines, the. 284,2297, 2316 PhilUps, Stephen. 3706 Phillips, Wendell. 1789 Fhilology: Classical. 10, 19, 24, 36, 86, 98, 102, 116, 191, 198, 212, 219, 246, 269, 893, 474, 496, 619, 664, (17th Century) 664, 668, 873, 1171, 1239, 1263, 1370, (18th Century) 1499, 1619, 1636, 1662, 1646, 1870, 1964, 1981, 2171, 2233, 2260, (19tb Century) 2338, 2440, 2627, 2611, 2709, 2836, 2982, 3011, 3047, 3079, 3139, 3227, 3627, 3607, 3727, 3743 European. 749,1369,1387, 1460, 1981, 2462, 2662, 2664, 2678, 2693, 2786, 2982, 3062, 3180, 3214, 3383, 3616, 3527 Oriental Philology till Bopp. 62, 261, 764, 827, 880, 906, 946, 1003, 1047, 1106, nil, (18th Century) 1481, 1686, 2004, 2020, 2148, 2183, 2306, (19th Cen- tury) 2371, 2409, 2440, 2464, 2491, 2612 Miscellaneous. 1140,1812, 2011, 2169, 2315, 2382, 2666, 3335 FhilOBOpby : Ethics. 447, 609, 646, 667, 879, 912, 1002, 1009, 1018, 1036, 1066, 1126, 1227, 1262, 1366, 1414, (18th Century) 1618, 1607, 1619, 1623, 1783, 1816, 1834, 1846, 1869, 1877, 1887, 1945, 2137, 2281, 2290, (19th Century) 2314, 2692, 3046, 3197, 3322, 3379, 3440, 3465, 3600, 3614, 3661, 3625, 3667 Logic. 286,562,800,2463, 2848, 2898, 3365 Psychology. 1043, 1066, 1361, 1797, 2612, 2677, 2943, 3096, 3163, 3365, 3379, 3440, 3561, 3711 Physiocrats, the. 1878 Pichegru. 1426, 1433, 1611 Pinel 2218 Pitman. 2801 Pt», Earl of Chatham. 1107, 1142, 1186, 1193,1767—61, 1249, 1250, 1260, 1267, 1301, 2069 Pitt, William. See 1783— 1806 Pius v.. Pope. 439, 440, 301, 446, 466, 308, 315 Piiu VI., Pope. 2094, 2149, 2176, 2178, 1454, 1462 Pit« F/Z., Pope. 2320,2366, 1543, 1560, 2413, 2446, 2468, 1601, 2572 Pizarro. 129, 274 Plassey, battle of. 1200 Plowden. 466 Plunket, Archbishop. 3678 Plunkett, H. 2268 Plymouth Brethren. 2668 PobyedonosUeff. 3481, 3744 Pococke. 880, 1105, 1373 Poincar€. 3621 Poland. 22, 41, 119, 123, 271, 279, 307, 320, 328, 392, (17th Century) 470, 489, 609, 702, 1666—1660, 524 INDEX. 805, 815, 843, 916, 928, 1700—14, 1081, 1088, 1092, 1171, 1239, 1253, 1266, 1270, 1281, 1284, 1399, 1415, 1421, 1427. 1437, (19th Century) 1537. 1583, 1613, 1634. 1721, 1730, 1742, 1865, 1888, 2016, 2022, 2056 Polish Ch. 170, 344, 361, 424, 445, 455, 519, 630, 678, 692, 936, 997, 1122, 1611, 1667, 2027, 3221 Polish Lit. 362, 517, 701, 2042, 2673, 2750, 2831, 2895 Politics to Hobbes. 95, 114, 260, 376, 462, 482, 489, 503, 512, 523, 558, 581, 590, 626, 653, (17th Cen- tury) 681, 492, 494, 75i, 783, 826, 676, 896, 954, 963, 971, 983, 995, 1004, 1019, 1036, 1054 Pole, Cardinal. 168, 235, 189, 241, 365, 368, 374 Polignac. 1389, 1708, 1713, 1717 Politique*, the. 323, 332, 836 Pimhal. 1163, 1863, 1204, 1881, 1930, 2022, 1311, 2110 Povipadour, Mme de. 1138. 1162, 1238 Potnponazzi. 9, 113 Pope, 1502, 1515, 1524, 1548, 1658, 1754 Pordage. 1206 P(ynm. 2171, 2233, 2338 Porta, Battista. 391 Port/awd, 3rd Duke of. 1348, 1424, 1636, 1649 Port Royal. 931, 1011, 1148, and see Jansenism (under French Ch.) Portugal. 6, 98. 347. 348, 369, 368, 402, 645. 668, 724, 745, 759, 769, 779. (18th Century) 952, 1163, 1849, 1204, 1311, 1316, 1367. 1447. (19th Century) 1487, 1514, 1539, 1546, 1552, 1663, 1685, 1660, 1669, 1687. 1693, 1700, 1711, 1744, 1753, 1761, 1777, 1863, 1875, 2249 Portuguese Ch, 14, 242, 1863, 1881, 1930, 2746 Portuguese Lit, 41, 173, 472, 2830, 3405 Portuguese Nun, letters of. 1201 PosUl. 261 Potemkin, 1377, 1384, 1892 Potter, Paul. 1059 Pougateheff, 1293 Poussin, 952, 1173 Poynet, 376 PrescoU, 2806 Pretender, Old. 978, 998, 1012, 1013, 1018, 1020, 1026, 1046 Pretender, Toung. 1133, 1137. 1143, 2162 Price, 1869,1974,2184 Pnestley. 1999, 2030, 2054, 2103, 1404, 2364 Prim. 2039, 2064 Prior. 1332,1502,1507,991 Probabilism. 509, 1002, 1009, 1365, 1783, 3086 Propaganda, The. 810 Proudhon, 2849 Prynnf. 611, 626, P55, iOS^, 1106, 1205 Puffendorf. 1188,1226,1393 Pugin, 2846 Pulteney. 1039, 1066, 1058, 1085 Pult(yiDa, battle of. 984 'Punch: 2858, 3025, 3225 Pureell. 1245, 1390, 14W Pusey. 2657, 2757, 2886, 2917, 3001, 3235, 3343, 3416, 3506 Pushkin. 2565,2622,2705, 2808 Puvis de Chavannes. 3407, 3622 Pym. 549, 648, 654, 661, 987 Quaritch. 3284 Quarles. 903 Quarterly Beview. 2403 Quatrefages. 3232 QuensUdt. 2896 Quesnai, 1878 Quemel. 1218,1402,1580 Quetelet. 2768 Quevedo. 855 Quinet. 3290 BabelaU. 210, 347 Rachel. 2812 Racive. 1185, 1193, 1367, 1434 Radcliffe, Mrs. 2239 Radetsky. 1883, 1894 Raffles. 1679, 1646, 2638 Rahel. 2344 Raiffeisen. 2999 Rakoczy, George I. 675, 681 Rakoezy, George II. 730 Rakoczy, Francis. 961, 975, 993 1027 Raleigh. 352,381,388, 43(\ 432, 460, 764, 622, 527 Rambouillet, circle of. 73^ Ramilies, battle of. 964 Rammohun, Boy. 2685 Rampolla. 3434 Ramsay, Allan (father) .1617 Ramsay, Allan (son). 1963 Ramsay, chemist. 3697, 3724, 3740 Ramus. 286, 477 Ranjit Singh. 1534 Ranke. 2613, 2806, 2829, 3150, 3490, 3567 Rapliael 51, 61, 72, 90, 98, 140 Raskolniks. 1058 Ratzel. 3548 Rauch. 2691 Ratfignan. 2791 Ray. 1250,1296,1325,1383 Rayleigh. 3697 Raynal. 2005 Reade, Charles. 3103 Riaumur. 1585, 1696, 1821 Rectus. 3412, 3546 Redi. 1194,1318 Redmond. 2229 Reeve, Henry. 1817, 3380 Regnard. 1404 Regnier. 714, 757 Reichstadt, Due de. 1737 Reid. 1934 Reimarus. 1832, 2025 Rein. 35^7 Reinkens. 3206, 3358 Rijane. 3390 Rembrandt. 887, 1196 Renan. 3097, 3204, 3580, 3661 Renaudot. 886, 960 Renie of FeriBih. 179,276, 318 Reni, Gnido. 561, 974 Rennell. 2067, 2078 Renouvier. 3077, 3712 Reszke, E. and J. de. 3407 Reuchlin. 15, 28, 62, 73, 106, 130, 153 Reusch. 3516 Reuss. 2759 INDEX. 525 Bey Midi. 1887, 1970, 2223 Mhodei, Cecil. 2217, 2226, 2236, 2276, 2297, 2305, 2326 Rhodes, Island of. 105 Ricardo. 2425, 2529 Ricei, Bishop. 2142 Eicci, S. J. 545 JUchardacm. 1716,1784,1907 Richelieu, Cardinal. 511, 519, 539, and see 1624— 42 Richter, E. 2185 Richter, H. 3407 Richter, J. P. 2358 Ridley. 333, 341, 343, 348, 356 Riemann, 3076 RiUchl. 3115,3314,3612 Ritter, 2530 JUzzio, 292 Roberts, Lord. 2138, 2154, 3728, 2326 RoberUon, Forbes. 3721 Robertson, F.'W. 2947,3068 Robertson, W. 1982 Robespierre. 1420, 1426, 2238 Robinet. 1904 Robinson, Crabb. 2403 Robson. 3763 Roche/art. 2053, 2071, 2150 Rochester, Hyde, Earl of. 845, 852, 858, 931 Rockingham, Lord. 1229, 1244, 1249, 1250, 1267, 1342 Rodbertus. 3066 Rodin. 8741 Rodney. 1331, 1345 Roe, Sir T. 505 Roebuck. 1949 Rogers. 2585 Rogier. 1872 Rohan, Cardinal. 1864, 2137 Rohan, Due de. 545, 566, 586, 618, 628 Rollin. 1647 Romagnosi. 1995, 2570 Romanes. 3654 RomiUy. 2411,2603 Ransard. 319, 573 Rontgen. 3709 Rooke. 956 Roon. 2005 Roscher. 2900 Rose, H. J. 2631 Rosebery, IjOTd. 2215,2268, 2279, 2289 Rosegger, 3332 Rosicrucians. 759,782,1215 Rosmini. 2686, 2692, 2934 Rossbach, battle of. 1198 RossetH, D. G. 2978, 3119, 3256, 3315, 3506 Rossi. 3226 Rosnni. 2676 Rostand. 3738 Rothe. 2792,2918,3280 Rothschild, N. M. 1557 Rouher. 1915 Rousseau. 1805,1835,1873, 1896, 1915, 1935, 2069, 2096 Royal Society. 1000, 1125 Royer-Collard. 2438, 1620, 1717 Rubens. 717, 750, 799, 956 Rubinstein. 3105 RUckert. 2488, 2779 Rudini. 3634 Ruge. 2815 Ruknken. 1870 Rumford, B. Thompson, Coont. 2066, 2199, 2289, 2301 Rupert. 661, 667, 673, 772, 787, 799 Ruskin. 2897, 2978, 2995, 3025, 3236, 3339 Russell, G. W. £. 2289 Ru8seU,IjordJ. 1647,1655, 1697, 1716, 1727, 1765, 2836, 1851, and see Eng- land. 1846—66 Russell, Lord W. 841 Russia, to Peter the Great. 42, 123. 221, 346, 271, 328, 380, 411, 422, 442, (17th Century) 455, 466, 470, 489, 509, 525, 678, 709, 725, 735, 742, 749, 838 Russian Ch. 337, 543, 1058, 1452, 1591, 1864, 1910, 1240, 1950, (19th Century) 2459, 2484, 2825, 3129, 3312, 3481, 3507, 3535, 3599, 3615, 3664, 3719 Russian Lit. 1708, 1777, 1842, 1854, 2192, (19th Century) 2420, 2435, 2565, 2588, 2622, 2705, 2749, 2780, 2799, 2880, 2939, 2955, 3043, 3145, 3160, 3210, 3254, 3421, 3574, 3620, 3685, 3755 Rutherford. 995, 1120, 746 Ruyter. 712,772,797,813 Ryswick, peace of. 915 Sabatier, A. 3711 Sacheverell. 982, 986 Sachs, Hans. 518 Sachs, J. 3512 Sackville, poet. 412 Sadoleto. 98, 138, 235, 264 Sagasta. 2232, 2300 Saint-Rilaire, G. 2258, 2690 Saint'Saens. 3424' Saint Sijnon, Comte de. 2640 Saint Simon, Duo de. 1389, 1850 Sainte-Beuve. 2672, 2842, 2992, 3310 Salar Jung. 1940, 1965 Salisbttry, Lord. 2044, and see 1878 — 99 Salmanus. 801, 878, 1054 Samoa. 2136, 2228, 2323 Sancroft. 869, 1346 Sand, Georges. 2721, 3415 Sanderson. 912, 996, 1013, 1018, 1084 Sansovino. 182 Sarcey. 3269 Sardou. 3348, 3635, 3667 Sargent. 3741 Sarpi. 474, 736, 795, 796, 828 Sarsjield. 880, 887 Savigny. 2493, 3186 Savile, Sir G. 2061 Savile, Sir H. 744 Savonarola. 10, 8, 26 Savoy, Dukes of. 38, 52, 141, 166, 168, 175, 199, 204, 253, 260, 404, (17th Century) 448, 454. 458, 495, 604, 657, 562, 596, 617, 640, 719, 883, 898, 911, 966, 1002, 1547, 1036. (Henceforward, see Italy) Savoy Conference. 1130 Saxe, Marshal. 1133, 1139, 1145, 1160, 1153 Say. 2350 Scaliger, Joseph. 557, 619, 625, 654, 702, 707, 724 Scaliger, Julius. 191, 269,. 379, 399 Scarlatti. 1278 Scarron. 1052, 1102 Schamhorst. 1536, 1581 Schelling. 2281, 2326, 2335 Schiaparelli. 3423, 3604 Schiller. 2097, 2135, 2241, 2257, 2300, 2374 526 IND£X. 8chlegel,A. 2278,2286,2419 SchltgeU F. 2286, 2300, 2309, 2409, 2681 SehUiden, 2813,2882 SchUiermacker. 2297,2300, 2309, 2388, 2572, 2756 Schliemann. 3364, 3631 Schmalkald, League of. 143, 148 SchmolUr, 3352 Schomberg, 880 Schopenhauer. 2563, 3169 Schreiner, Olive. 3509 Schreiner, W. 2305, 2316 Schubert, 2500, 2598 Schulte-Delitzsch, 2999 Schumann. 2752, 3111 Schumann, Madame. 2846 Schurz, Carl. 2089 Schwann. 2751,2802,2832 Schwarzenhurg. 1599 Schwenkfeld, 187,265,402 Science: Anatomy, Biology, etc. to Lamarck. 280, 391, 680,795.814,862,1017, 1043, 1063, 1138, 1160, 1194, 1254, (18th Cen- tury) 1631, 1745, 1868, 1885, 1913, 1962, 2003, 2116, 2244, 2258, 2289, 2325 Astronomy to Hersohel. 287, 493, 716, 722, 733, 795, 862, 895, 939, 944, 1117, 1186, 1244, 1335, 1383, (18th Century) 1474, 1568, 1639, 1778, 1817, 1844, 1868, 2086, 2098 Botany. 555, 848, 1213, 1261, 1296, 1335, 1391, (18th Century) 1681, 1730, 2075, 2179, 2182, 2193, 2228, 2280, (19th Century) 2334, 2370, 2473, 2538, 2638, 2661, 2690, 2766, 2832, 2882, 3024, 3058, 3196, 3392, 3512 Chemistry to Lavoisier. 183, 832, 1169, 1213, 1654, 1662, 1833, 1902, 1953, 2010, 2030, 2066 Geology to Lyell. 303, 531, 1368, 1397, 1719, 1770, 1787, 2010, 2030, 2043, 2125, 2258, (19th Century) 2405, 2422, 2473, 2501, 2609, 2623, 2638, 2675, 2690 Mathematics to Legendre. 297, 373, 473, 604, 636, 762, 795, 848, 919, 932, 1079, 1095, 1109, 1154, 1179, 1244, 1335, (18th Century) 1532, 1550, 1556, 1645, 1739, 1787, 2098, 2244 Medicine. 183, 297, 960, 1043, 1109, 1250, 1277, 1488, 1496, 1902, 2086, 2125, 2218, 2271, (19th Century) 2437, 2489, 2550, 2638, 2956, 3240, 3362, 3486, 3498, 3541, 3590, 3654, 3686, 3757 Physics : General 992,1702,2030, 2289, 2550, 2802, 3044, 3076, 3136, 3423, 3452, 3709, 3757 Electricity and Magnetism to Oersted. 661, 1639, 1760, 1817, 1856, 2125, 2182, 2313, 2395, 2550 Engineering. 1885, 1906, 2206, 2623, 2675, 2813, 2922, 2994, 3024, 3058, 3104, 3333, 3438, 3559, 3604, 3621 Heat. 798, 1286, 1423, 1474, 1585, 1897, 1944, 2019, 2066, 2136, 2302, (19th Centuiy) 2360, 2395, 2450, 2462, 2489, 2501, 2550, 2589, 2609, 2706, 2725, 2882, 2956, 3008, 3024, 3224 Light. 391,661,686,805, 841, 932, 1169, 1202, 1250, 1261, 1468, 1503, 1802, (19th Century) 2325, 2334, 2405, 2437, 2450, 2489, 2501, 2510, 2832, 2845, 2994, 3008, 3044, 3104, 3709, 3724 Mechanics. 555, 670, 595, 612, 769, 862, 939, 980, 1043, 1109, 1138, 1164, 1231, 1250, (18th Cen- tury) 1563, 1687, 1745, 1770, 1778, 2019,2169, (19th Century) 2346, 2360, 2577, 2675, 2751, 3512 Sound. 1335,1441,2146, 3211, 3423, 3438 Zoology. 330, 363, 652, 1202, 1250, 1325, 1383, 1696, 1751, 1760, 1796, 1897, 2043, 2280, 2289, (19ih Century) 2380, 2450, 2624, 2638, 2661, 2690, 2751, 2802, 2832, 2845, 3146. 3211, 3423, 3626, 3675 Scioppiui. 698, 707, 793, 902 Scotland: Scotland since the Unioii. 978, 1013, 1030, 1097, 1137, 1143, 1170, 1193, 1300, 1356, 2267 Scotch Ch. since the Union. 1492, 1514, 1522, 1581, 1643, 1666, 1766, 1901, 2071, 2121, 2162, 2212, 2225, 2284, (19th Century) 2354, 2481, 2559, 2700, 2745, 2839, 2887, 2948, 3113, 3220, 3373, 3431 Scotch Lit. till the Unioa. 39, 46, 94, 236, 318, 510, 649, 664, 780, 1069 Scott, Oilbert. 3194 Scott, Thomas. 2296 Scott, Walter. 2365, 2403, 2487, 2507, 2534, 264S, 2618, 2730 Senbe. 2879,2992 Seudery. 892 Sedan, battle of. 2071 Sedgvnch. 2706 Seeley. 3235, 3516, 3700 Selbome, Lord. 2091 Selden. 785, 549, 581, 920, 953, 964, 996, 1083 Selivyn. 2856 Sender. 1894, 2000 Senancour. 2356 Senior, Nassau. 2756 Serfdom. 22, 422, 1332, 2118, 1389, 2199, 1636, 1972, 1998 Servetus. 206, 344, 796 S€vignS, Mme de. 1200, 1408 Seward. 1973 Seymour, Jane. 163 Sforza, Lodovico. 7, 14, 22, 26 Shaftesbury, Ist Earl. 799, 817, 824, 829, 1284, 832, 836 ShafUsbury,Bidl&ail. 1414, 1518, 1538 Shaftesbury, lihEaxl. 2884 Shakespere. 677, 603, 624, 674, 720, 778. Editions, etc. 822, 1602, 1977, 2972, 3238, 3696, 3737 INDEX. 527 Sharp, Oranville. 2160 Skelbume.hoTd. 1255,1342, 1348 Sheldon^ Archbishop. 1084, 1130, 1151 Sheldon, G. 3762 Shelley. 2471, 2534, 2648, 2673, 2595 Shelley, Mary. 2523 Shepstane. 2127 Sheridan, 2038, 2056, 1380 Sherman, General. 2023, 2029 Sherman, John. 2234 Shorthou$e. 3464 Shrewsbury, EarL 873, 1006 Siekel. 3276 Siekingen. 104, 110 Siddans, Mrs. 2106 Sidgwiek. 3379,3518 Sidney, PhiUp. 360, 627, 390, 603 Sieylt, Abb6. 2184, 1426, 1472 Sigwart, 3366 Simeon, 2103 Simmel. 3657 Simon, Jules. 2071, 2124, 3444 Sinum, Pdre. 1259 Simpson, 2956 Sismondi, 2397 Sixtus V,, Pope. 886, 680 Skeat, 3615 Skelton, 151 Skoheleff, 2125, 2165, 3606 Slavery. 18, 48, 78, 408, 1443, 1456, 998, 1906, 2012, 2022, 2062, 2150, 2160, 2173, 2222, 2398, 2494, 2742 (and see America, under Slavery) Sloane, 1335, 1826 Smith, Adam. 1878, 1887, 2050, 2200 Smith, Goldwin. 3641 Smith, Joe. 2617 Smith, John, Captain. 481, 716, 766 Smith, John (Divine). 988, 1062 Smith, Robertson. 3389, 3431 Smith, Sydney. 2333, 2403 Smith, Sir T. 219, 558 Smith, W., geologist. ;i501 SmolUtt, 1784,2001,2006 Sohieski, 805, 843 flodalism: Theory, 114,1061,1407, 1846, 1905, 1923, 2044, 2231, (19th Century) 2407, 2511, 2849, 2868, 2964, 3012, 3066, 3080, 3181, 3200, 3278, 3489, 3491, 3596, 3762 Christian Socialism, 2748, 2984, 2991, 3233, 3293, 3341, 3428, 3605, 3630 Parties : America. 3566 Belgium, 2273 England, 3491, 3621, 2206, 3691 France, 2079 Germany, 2100, 2129, 2151, 2230, 2257 'IntemationaW the. 3233, 3293, 3365 Socinus, F. 619, 678, 689, 692 Socinus, X. 409 Socotra, island of. 2122 Solferino, battle of. 1978 Soliman. 93, 100, 152, 159 Somers. 901, 931, 935, 977, 1668 Somerset, Protector. 202, 217, 218, 226, 228, 231 Sorel, Albert. 3580 Sophia Dorothea of Hanover. 904 Sophia, Electress. 1365, 935, 1006 Soult. 1545, 1552, 1570, 1588, 1599 South. 1125, 1258, 1355 Southcote, J. 2480 Southey, 2204, 2322, 2403, 2471, 2902 South Sea Bubble. 1034, 1039 Spallanzani, 1913, 1962 Spanish Ch, 1, 13, 99, 144, 166, 284, 296, 359, 384, 405, 423, 470, 788, 1209, 1824, 1960, (19th Century) 2401, 2483, 2521, 2875, 3035, 3297, 3432, 3678 Spanish Lit. 2, 70, 122, 172, 189, 196, 279, 285, 351, 530, 532, 664, 611, 661, (17th Century) 741, 768, 855, 871, 904, 1070, 1541, 1874, 2242, 2620, 2863, 2976, 2993 Spectator, the. 1516 Spee, 889,1002,1033 Spelman, 849, 945 Spence. 2044, 2231 Spencer, Hebraist. 1314 Spencer, Herbert. 3026, 3044, 3096, 3179, 3197, 3363, 3368, 3413, 3455, 3628 Spener. 1241,1478 Speranski, 1488,1644,1565, 1646, 2695 Spenser, 621,627,699,603, 656 Spielhagen. 3159 Spinola. 464, 479, 568 Spinoza. 1091,1210,1266, 1266, 1257 Spiritualism. 2069, 3322, 3638, 3740 Spohr. 2598 Spurgeon. 3062, 3668, 3661 St Aldegonde. 294, 643, 649 StCyran, 917,923,935,987 St ivremond. 1102, 1115 St Helena. 704 St Just. 1420, 1426 St Martin. 1834,2036 St Pierre, Bernardin de. 2123, 2167 Stael, Mme de. 2312, 2392, 2432, 2631, 2535 Stahl, P. 2439, 2694 Stahl, G. 1488, 1654 Stair. 1288, 892 Stambulqf. 2201, 2211, 2274, 2283 Stanford. 3725 Stanhope, 1st Earl. 978, 988, 1006, 1029, 1039 Stanley, Dean. 2906, 3155, 3343, 3492 Stanley, H. M. 3396, 3427, 2145, 3581 Stas. 2865 Stead, 3601,3617,3676 Steel, Mrs. 3683, 3706 Steele. 1602, 1515, 1641 Stein. 1536, 1547, 1589, 2642 Stendhal. 2647, 2703, 2885 Stephanus,RenTy, 432,474, 622, 649 Stephanus, Bobert. 198, 212, 301 Stephen, Sir J. 3366, 3519 Stephen, Leslie. 3500, 3637 Stephenson, G. 2623, 2676 Stephenson, B. 2813 Sterling. 2811,3019 Sterne, 1895, 1969, 1973 Stevens, Alfred. 3137 Stevenson, B. L. 3509, 3692 Stevinus. 670, 802 Stewart, Dugald. 2220 Stillingfleet. 1113, 1142, 1190, 1290, 1346, 1361 528 INDEX. Stirlinff, Captain. 1715 Stimer. 2910 Stockmar. 1785 StSeker, 3428 Stokes, Sir G. 3044 Stolherg. 2309, 2376 Stow, 644 Stowe, Mrs. 3040 Stradivarius, 1422 StratUB, D. F. 2759, 2626, 3345, 3385 Stratui, xnuaioian (elder). 2652 Strausi, masician (younger). 3273, 3378 Strotsmayer. 3313 Struemee. 1276, 1286 Sirype, 1504 Stuart, ArabeUa. 460, 496 Stubbs. 3380 Suarez. 509, 698, 783, 784 Stidfrmann, 3556, 3652, 3722 Swz Canal. 2066 Suffren, 1840, 1341 Sullivan, A. 3540, 3642 Sully. 445, 468, 494, 965 Sunderland, Charles, Earl. 1029, 1039 Sunderland, Robert, Earl. 824, 862, 869, 897, 901 Surrey, poet. 212, 217, 372 Suvoroff. 1384,1392,1401, 1427. 1469, 1470 Sven Hedin, 3715 Swammerdam, 1202 Sweden. 86, 127, 92, 113, 116, 128, 205, 311, 346, 416, (17th Century) 466, 499, 626, 663, 603, 670, 676, 689, 716, 717, 1655— 1660, 798, 803, 808, 820, 834, 899, 1700—21, 1109, 1167, 1285, 1384, 1391, 1400, 1414, (19th Century) 1653, 1664, 1571, 16S2, 1602, 1637, 1988, 2028 Swediih Lit. 1028, 1270, 1661, 2124, 2434, 2621, 2736, 2876, 3450 Swedenborg. 1743, 2015 Swift. 1463, 1465, 1502, 986, 1507, 1515, 1529, 1052, 1624, 1764 Swinburne. 3223 Switzerland. 23, 74, 76, 99, 137, 141, 144, 168, 237, 391, 404, 458, 690, 718, 721, 780, 996, 1312, 1463, (19th Century) 1504, 1693, 1612, 1720, 1741, 1762, 1778, 1819, 1839, 1874, 1890, 1962, 1969, 2103, 2242 Swiu Ch. 149, 157, 180, 195, 204, 209, 228, 239, 244, 257, 264, 273, 335, 344, 360, 418, 430, 520, 1243, (19th Century) 2430, 2793, 2826, 3293, 3359 Sybel. 3065,3150,3627 Sydenham. 1250, 1354 Sydney, Algernon. 772, 1285, 841, 1424 Syllabus, i^e {of 1964). 3222 SymbolUt8,ihe. 3091,3496, 3618 Szechenyi. 1681,1748,1821, 1876, 1898 Taaffe. 2143 Tahiti IsUs. 1832, 2156 Taine. 3121,3395,3661 TaiU 2852,3343,3372 Talleyrand. 1472, 2320, 1699, 1606, 2822 Tammany. 1393, 2084 Tanucci. 1091, 1309, 2110 Tartaglia. 251, 297 Tasso. 480, 631 Taylor, Henry. 2747 Taylor, Jeremy. 957, 996, 1013, 1021, 1041, 1063, 1126, 1189 Tegner. 2621 Telesio. 427 TempUf Archbishop. 3155 TempU, Sir William. 776, 778, 824, 1374, 1434 Tenien. 981 Tennyson. 2720,2878,3005, 3132, 3661 Terry, Ellen. 3435 Tersteegen. 1650 Tetzel. 120 Teutonic Knights. 119 Thackeray. 2858, 2972, 3039, 3090, 3218 Theosophy. 3394 Theresa, St. 405, 552 Thiers. 2600, 1673, 2688, 1717, 1775, 1811, 2925, 2967, 1882, 1905, 1915, 2011, 2079, 2086, 2092 Thirlwall. 2616, 2772 Tfiomasius. 1342, 1372, 1411, 1476, 1486 Thomson, J. 1624 Thomson, J. J. 3757 Thomson, William. 29iS6, 2977, 3024, 3044, 3136^ 8255 Thoreau. 2844 Thomdike. 1030,1105,1113 Thorwaldsen. 2279, 2451 Thring. 3063 ThuguL 1421 Thurlow. 2162,2212 Tichbome case. 3354 Ticknor. 2993 Tieek. 2278,2344 Tiepolo. 1914 Tilden. 2120 TiUenumt. 1360, 1427 Tillotson. 1156, 1346 TiUy. 540, 660, 667, 572, 587, 692, 697, 601 Tilnt, treaty of. 1537 * Times,' ihe. 2166,2487, 1817 Tindal. 1642 Tintoretto. 392, 627 Tiraboscki. 2107 TUchendorf. 2997, 3152 Titian. 66, 72, 77, 131, 159, 506 Titiens. 3137 Tobacco. 378, 579 Todleben. 1945 Tdkm. 810, 828, 835, 855, 866, 884, 890 Toland. 1401, 1424, 1463, 1566 ToUtoi. 3160, 3421, 3535, 3574, 3599, 3620 Tone, Wolfe. 1405, 1442, 1469 Tooke, Home. 1424, 1484 Toplady. 1999 Tories, origin of. 829 Torquemada. 1, 33 TorncelU. 980, 1020 Torstenson. 657, 665, 676 Toumefort. 1391 Totissaint. 1429,1489,1497 Townshend, C. 1255 To\cnshend,\iacoiini. 1006, 1039, 1073, 1648 Trafalgar, battle of. 1521 Treitschke. 3352,3445,3456 Trendelenburg. 2848 Trent, Council of. 291, 296, 302, 309, 328, 383, 406, 411, 415, 431, 446, 456 Trevelyan, Sir G. 2086, 2206 Triconpis. 2172, 2284 Tromp. 639, 705, 712 Tschaikowsky. 3669, 3676 Tucker. 1945 Turenne. See France and Germany. 1638—76 IND£X. 529 Turgenief. S043, 352H Turgot, 1804, 1810, 1217, 1966, 1297, 1302, 1308, 2102 Toxkey: Bosnia and Herzegovina. 1928, 2112, 2131, 2133, 2170 Bulgaria. 2119, 2131, 2162, 2177, 2192, 2201, 2211, 2212, 2274, 2283 Crete. 783, 20i0, 2294, 2303, 2313 Cyprus. 312, 326, 2131 Danuhian PHndpalitifs (RomnaniA). 216, 329, 423, 447, 451, 1019, 1271, 1554, 1583, 1663, 1689, 1713, 1899, 1935, 1945, 1956, 1971, 2041, 2126, 2131 Greece. 179, 848, 856, 928, 1017, 1027, 1298, 1385, 14GG, 2345, 1644, 1821—32, 1841, 1936, 1944, 2006, 2014, 2040, 2111, 2132, 2161, 2172, 2261, 2284, 2303, 2313 I(mian Islands. 1454, 1537, 1615, 2014 Montenegro. 78,913,1594, 1919, 1928, 1970, 2119, 2126, 2131, 2153 Servia. 100, 871, 884, 1023, 1027, 1532, 1584, 1630, 1723, 1830, 1956, 1981, 2119, 2131, 2192, 2224 Turner. 2394, 2551, 2833 Tycho Brake. 287,493,670, 862 Tyndale. 168,186,262 Tyreonnel. 875 T)frane, O'Neill, Earl of. 425, 444, 461 Udall, Nioholae. 324 Uhland. 2472 University Extension. 3274 Urban VIIL, Pope. 567, 821, 573, 863, 909, 651 Ursins, Prinoesse des. 933, 1009 Ussher. 766, 945, 957, 966, 1045, 1098, 1105 Utraquists. 417 Utrecht, Treaty of. 998 G. Vaeherot. 3138 Valdes, Juan. 189, 217 Valera. 2976 Vantfrugh. 1475 VanBuren. 1704,1782,1814 Vancouver. 2198 Van Dyek. 893, 965 Vane. 929, 661, 705, 716, 723, 740 Van Espen. 1438, 1604 Van Helmont. 832 Vanini. 771, 792 Van't Hoff. 3423, 3438 Vasco da Gama. 29, 34 Vatke. 2759,2867 Vauhan. 1202, 800, 8U4, 1490, 1491 Vaughan. 903, 1008 Vauvenargues. 1768, 1781 Velasquez. 825, 1129 Venn of Clapbam. 2387 Venn, H. 1918 Verdi. 3026,3469 Vergennes. 1297, 1310 Verlaine. 3538 Veronese. 407, 592 Vesalius. 280, 421 P Vespucci. 32, 27, 65 VeuiUot. 2874,2967,3222 Vianey. 2532 Vico. 1510, 1588, 1595, 1620, 1646, 1754 Victor Emanuel 11. See Italy. 1M9— 78 Victoria. 78, 171, 842 Victoria, Queen. Bee 1837 — Vieta. 604, 682 Villari. 3141 Villars. 948,983,992,995, 1004 VilUU. 1620, 1656 Villemain. 2660 ViUeroi. 907,964 ViUiers, 0. P. 1793, 1922 Vincent de Paul. 787, 830, 1129 Vinet. 2793, 2965 VioUet-U-Duc. 2923 Virchow. 2845, 1995 Vucher. 2957 Vives. 175, 206, 271 Voetius. 789, 931, 1024 Voiture. 839 Volney. 2202 Volta. 2182,2656 Voltaire. 1605,1624.1659, 1673, 1702, 1744, 1801, 1810, 1820, 1836, 1873, 1909, 1928, 1938, 2064, 2069 Vondel. 748, 840, 1078 Voss. 2097 Vossius, Gerard. 619, 834, 1040 Vossius, Isaac. 619 Voysey. 3311 Waghom. 1695 Wagner, A. 3341 Wagner, B. 3009, 3025, 3241, 3288, 3320, 3522 Wagram, battle of. 1551 WahaHs, the. 1714, 2161, 1672 Waits. 2912,3567 Wake. 1445, 1555, 1561 Wakefield, Gibbon. 1715, 1791 Waldeck-Rousseau. 2319 WaXdenses. 150, 208, 294, 719, 1315 Wales, united with England. 164 197 Walker, Fred. 3350 WaU. 1183 Wallace, A. B. 3136, 3491 WaUenstein. See Gtermany. 1625—34 Waller, General. 661, 667, 673 Waller, poet. 999, 1093 Wallis. 1000, 1021, 1079, 1095, 1109, 1125, 1355 Walpole,'Eorwie. 1865,1898, 1931, 2283 Walpole, Sir B. 977, 1006, 1018, and see England. 1721-^«3 Walnngham. 660,9^,602 Walton, B. 1105 Walton, I. 950, 1068, 1305 Warbeck. 1, 4, 12, 15, 17, 20, 21 Warburton. 1685,1699,1908 Ward, 3. 3561,3759 Ward, Mm n. 3587 Ward, W. G. 2809, 2903, 2917, 3127 Warton, J. 2028 Washington. 1184, 1190, and see AmeriGa,1774— 96. 2307 Waterland. 1572, 1689, 1666 Waterloo, battle of. Km WaUon, Bishop. 2266 34 530 INDEX. TTatf Oft, Joflhns. 2453,2618 Wation^ W. 3706 Watt. 1944, 1979, 2136 WattMu. 1562,1597 WatU, G. F. 2S97, 2978 Watts, Dr. 1485 Wattt-Dunton. 3737 Wehb,%. 3690,3729 Weber, moBician. 2551 Wehtter, DATiiel. 1704,1724, 1831, 3061 Wehiter, dramatist. 822 Webster, NoaK 2336, 2664 Wedderbum. 1278 Wedgwood. 1978 WeUrstrass. 3512 WeigeL 469 Weishaupt. 2046 Weismatm. 3604 Weiszdcker. 3563 WeUhausen. 3441 Wellington. 1509, and see 1808—16, 1661, 1694, 1697, 1706, 1716, 1736, 3051 Wentworth. 581, 585, 608, 616, 637, 642, 648 Werner. 2043 Wesley, Chtales. 1748,1782, 1892 Wesley, J. 1636,1680,1699, 1706, 1712, 1723, 1748, 1782, 1792, 1807, 1838, 1861, 1892, 1908, 1986, 1999, 2120, 2152, 2211 Westbury. 3372 Westeott. 3478 West Indies. 3, 8, 60, 471, 491, 559, 569, 580, 595, 605, 614, 621, 646, 719, 761, 762, 776, 788. 798, 919, (18th Gentniy) 945, 1122, 1221, 1224, 1228, 1230, 1232, 1319, 1336, 1845, 1410, 1429, 1434, 1449, 1457, (19th Centui7) 1489, 1497, 1507, 1525, 1556, 1617, 1659, 1849, 1921, 2000, 2030, 2800, 2315 YKe